4. What is Digestion?
• Digestion is a catabolic process in which large
complex molecules (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids) are broken down into
simpler monomers (monosaccharides, glycerol
and fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides)
which can be absorbed by the body.
5. Function
Breakdown of ingested food
Absorption of nutrients into the blood
Production of cellular energy (ATP)
Constructive and degradative cellular activities
6.
7. Types of Digestion
mechanical chemical
no chemical there is a
change in the chemical change
food. in the food.
food is broken down hydrolysis reactions
into smaller pieces, carried out by
mixed with digestive enzymes contained
juices secreted in the within the digestive
body. juices.
8. Proses Pencernaan
Mechanical Chemical
Ingestion Propulsion Absorption Defecation
Digestion Digestion
9. Six Processes of Digestion
1.Ingestion – getting food into the mouth
2.Propulsion – moving foods from one region of
the digestive system to another
3.Mechanical digestion
– Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
– Churning of food in the stomach
– Segmentation in the small intestine
10. 4.Chemical Digestion
– Enzymes break down food molecules into their
building blocks
– Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
5.Absorption
– End products of digestion are absorbed in the
blood or lymph
– Food must enter mucosal cells and then into
blood or lymph capillaries
6.Defecation
– Elimination of indigestible substances as feces
12. Division of digestive
system organs
Alimentary canal Accessory organ
continuous coiled secrete digestive
hollow tube that runs juices by ducts
from the mouth to (exocrine glands) into
the anus the alimentary canal.
13. Alimentary Canal Organs
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus
16. Mouth Oral Cavity (Ac)
• Mastication (chewing)
of food
• Mixing masticated food
with saliva
• Initiation of swallowing
by the tongue
• Allowing for the sense
of taste
17. Salivary Glands (Ac)
Salivary Glands:
• Saliva-producing glands
– Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
– Submandibular glands
– Sublingual glands
Saliva:
• Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
• Helps to form a food bolus
• Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
• Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
18. Teeth (Ac)
• The role is to masticate (chew)
food
• Humans have two sets of teeth
– Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
– 20 teeth are fully formed by age
two
• Permanent teeth
– Replace deciduous teeth
beginning between the ages of 6
to 12
– A full set is 32 teeth, but some
people do not have wisdom
teeth
• Types of teeth:
Incisors - cutting
Canines - tearing
Premolars – shearing,
shredding
Molars - grinding
19. Tooth Structure
• Crown – exposed part
– Outer enamel
– Dentin
– Pulp cavity
• Neck
– Region in contact with the
gum
– Connects crown to root
• Root
– Periodontal membrane
attached to the bone
– Root canal carrying blood
vessels and nerves
20. Pharynx (Al)
• Serves as a passageway for
air and food
• Food is propelled to the
esophagus by two muscle
layers
– Longitudinal inner layer
– Circular outer layer
• Food movement is by
alternating contractions of
the muscle layers
(peristalsis)
21. Esophagus (Al)
• Runs from pharynx to stomach through the
diaphragm
• Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
• Passageway for food only (respiratory system
branches off after the pharynx)
22. Liver and Gall Bladder (Accessory Organs)
• Largest gland in the body
• Composition
– Bile salts
– Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin
from the breakdown of
hemoglobin)
– Cholesterol
– Phospholipids
– Electrolytes
• Stores bile from the liver by
way of the cystic duct
• Bile is introduced into the
duodenum in the presence of
fatty food
• Gallstones can cause blockages
24. Stomach (Al)
• Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Regions of the stomach
– Cardiac region – near the heart
– Fundus
– Body
– Pylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
• Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric
sphincter
• Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
• External regions
– Lesser curvature
– Greater curvature
25. Function of Stomach
• Acts as a storage tank
for food
• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of
protein begins
• Delivers chyme
(processed food) to the
small intestine
26. Pancreas (Ac)
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories of
food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme
• Endocrine products of pancreas
– Insulin
– Glucagon
27.
28. Large Intestine (Al)
• Larger in diameter, but shorter
than the small intestine
• Frames the internal abdomen
• Cecum – saclike first part of
the large intestine
• Appendix
– Accumulation of lymphatic
tissue that sometimes becomes
inflamed (appendicitis)
– Hangs from the cecum
• Colon
– Ascending
– Transverse
– Descending
– S-shaped sigmoidal
• Rectum
• Anus – external body opening
29. Functions of Large Intestine
• Absorption of water
• Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces
• Does not participate in digestion or absorption of
digested food
• Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a lubricant
• Site of production of Vitamin K by symbiotic bacteria
which live off the remains of food that have not been
digested or absorbed in the small intestine. These
bacteria produce over 50% of fecal matter.
30. Small Intestine (Al)
• The body’s major digestive organ all digestion of food
is completed in this organ
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Duodenum (25cm = 10 inches) “12 finger widths
long”
– Attached to the stomach
– Curves around the head of the pancreas
– Where bile and pancreatic juices enter the alimentary
canal
• Jejunum (2.5m = 8 feet) “empty”
– Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
• Ileum (3.6m = 12 feet) “twisted”
– Extends from jejunum to large intestine
31.
32. Small Intestine (Internal Structure)
• Villi are small fingerlike
structures formed by the
mucosa
• Give the small intestine more
surface area for absorption
• Fold in the intestine are called
circular folds or plicae
circulares
• Deep folds of the mucosa and
submucosa
• Do not disappear when filled
with food
• The submucosa has Peyer’s
patches (collections of
lymphatic tissue)
33. Villi Internal Structure and Function
• Absorptive cells are found on the
surface epithelium which are
simple columnar microvilliated
epithelium
• Blood capillaries are below the
surface epithelium and this is
where monosaccharides, amino
acids, and nucleic acids enter into
the blood stream and are taken
to the liver for processing
• Lacteals (specialized lymphatic
capillaries) where lipids are
absorbed and eventually re-enter
the blood stream to be taken to
the liver for processing.
35. WHAT IS NUTRIENT?
• Substance in food that is used by the body to
promote normal growth ,maintenance and
repair.
• Divide into 6 categories
major nutrient:carbohydrate,lipids,water and
protein
minor nutrient:vitamin and mineral
36. WHAT IS DIGESTION?
• Process of breaking down ingested food into
small molecule
• For example:
-In mouth,salivary amylase convert starch to
maltose,maltotriose and a-dextrin
-In stomach,pepsin convert protein to peptide
-Lingual and gastric lipases convert
triglycerides into fatty acid,diglycerides and
monoglycerides
37. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
• Salivary amylase keep continue in stomach
but then it was stop by acidic pH. So, just a
few starches are broken down
• Starches that not already broken down into
maltose,maltotriose and a-dextrins are
cleaved by pancreatic amylase
• Although pancreatic amylase acts both on
glycogen and starches but it doesn’t effect
cellulose
38. • After amylase split starch into small
fragment,a brush-border enzyme called a-
dextrinase acts on the resulting a-
dextrins,clipping off one glucose unit at a time
• Ingested molecules of sucrose,lactose and
maltose (disaccharides)-are not acted on until
they reach small intestine
39. • Sucrase breaks sucrose into molecule of
glucose and fructose
• Lactase digest lactose into molecule of glucose
and galactose
• Maltase split maltose and maltotriose into
two or tree molecules of glucose,respectively
• Digestion of carbohydrate ends with
production of monosaccharides,which the
digestive system is able to absorb
40. DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
• Protein are fragmented into peptide by action of
pepsin
• Enzyme in pancreatic juice-
trypsin,chymotrypsin,carboxypeptidase and
elastase-continue to break down protein into
peptide
• Although all these enzyme convert whole protein
into peptide,their action differ somewhere b’coz
each split peptide bonds between different
amino acid
41. • Trypsin,chymotrypsin and elastase all cleave
the peptide bond between a specific amino
acid and its neighbor
• Carboxypeptidase splits off the amino acid at
the end of peptide
• Protein digestion is completed by two
peptidase in aminopeptidase and dipeptidase
42. • Aminopeptidase cleaves off amino acid at the
amino end of peptide
• Dipeptidase splits dipeptides into single
amino acid
43. DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
• The most abundant lipids in diet are
triglycerides,consist of molecule of glycerol
bonded to three fatty acid molecule
• Enzyme that split triglycerides and
phospholipids are called lipase
• Three type of lipases that can participate in
lipid digestion are lingual lipase,gastric lipase
and pancreatic lipase
44. • Triglycerides are broken down by pancreatic
lipase into fatty acid and monoglycerides
• Large lipid globule containing triglyceride can
be digested in the small intestine,and it
undergo emulsification
• Emulsification-process in which large lipid
globule is broken down into several small lipid
globule.it involve bile
45. • The small lipid globule formed from
emulsification provide a large surface area
that allow pancreatic juice to function more
effectively
46. DIGESTION OF NUCLEIC ACID
• Pancreatic juice contain two
nucleases:ribonuclease which digest RNA and
deoxyribonuclease which digest DNA
• Result of the action of this two nuclease are
further digested by nucleosidases and
phosphatase into pentose,phosphates and
nitrogenous base
• These product are absorbed via active
tansport
49. ABSORPTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
• The capacity of small intestine to absorb
monosaccharide is huge-an estimated 120
grams per hour
• As a result, all dietary carbohydrate that are
digested normally are absorbed, leaving only
indigestible cellulose and fiber in feces.
• Monosaccharides pass from the lumen
through the apical membrane via facilitated
diffusion or active transport.
50. -Fructose(found in fruit)-is transported via
facilitated diffusion
-Glucose and galactose are transported into
absorptive cells of the villi via secondary active
transport that is coupled to the active transport
of Na+
• Monosaccharide then move out of absorptive
cells through their basolateral surface via
facilitated diffusion and enter the capillaries of
the villi
51. ABSORPTION OF AMINO
ACIDS,DIPEPTIDES AND TRIPEPTIDES
• Protein is absorbed as amino acid via active
transport, mainly occur in deodenum and
jejunum
• Half of the absorbed amino acid are present in
food and the other half come from the body
itself as protein in digestive juice and dead
cells that slough off the mucosal surface.
52. • 95-98% of the protein present in small
intestine is digested and absorbed.
• Different transporter carry different type of
amino acid
-some amino acid enter absorptive cell of the
villi via Na+ dependent secondary active
transport which is silmilar to the glucose
transporter and the other amino acid are
actively transported by themselves
53. • Amino acid move out of the absorptive cells
via diffusion and enter capillaries of the villus
• :both monosaccharides and amino acid are
transported in the blood to the liver by way of
hepatic portal system.
54. ABSORPTION OF LIPID
• All dietary lipid are absorbed via simple diffusion
• Because of emulsification and digestion;
triglycerides are mainly broken down into
monoglycerides and fatty acid, which can be
short-chain fatty acid or long-chain fatty acid
• Short-chain fatty acid are hydrophopic and small
in size. Thus, they can dissolve in the watery
instestinal chyme,pass through the absorptive
cells via simple diffusion
55. • Long-chain fatty acid are large and
hydrophobic and have difficulty being
suspended in the watery environment of the
intestinal chyme. So, bile salt help them to be
more soluble
• Bile salt surround the long-chain fatty acid and
forming tiny sphere called micelles.
56. • The micelles move from the interior of the
small intestinal lumen to the absorptive cell.
• At that point, long-chain fatty acid diffuse out
of the micelle into absorptive cells, leaving
micelles behind the chyme
57. ABSORPTION OF ELECTROLYTE
• Electrolyte that are absorbed by the small
intestine come from gastrointestinal
secretions and some are part of ingested
foods and liquids
• Recall that electrolyte are compound that
separate into ions in water and conduct
electricity
58. • Sodium ion are actively transported out of
absorptive cells by basolateral sodium-
potassium pump after they have moved into
absorptive cells via diffusion and secondary
active transport.
• Negatively charge bicarbonate,chloride,iodide
and nitrate ion can passively follow Na+ or
actively transported
59. • Calcium ion also are absorbed actively in a
process stimulated by calcitriol
• Other electrolyte such as
iron,potassium,magnesium and phosphate
ions are absorbed via active transport
mechanism
60. ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS
• Fat soluble vitamin A,D,E and K are included
with digested dietary lipid and absorbed via
simple diffusion
• Water-soluble vitamin such as B and C also
absorbed via simple diffusion. However B12
combine with intrinsic factor produced by the
stomach and combination is absorbed in the
ileum via an active transport mechanism
61. ABSORPTION OF WATER
• the total volume of fluid that enter small intestine
each day about 9.3 liters-comes from ingestion of
liquid and from various gastrointestinal secretion
• The small intestine absorbs about 8.3 liters of
fluid; the remainder passes into the large
intestine, where most of the rest of it-about 0.9
liter
• Only 0.1 liter of water is excreted in the feces
each day. Most is excreted via urinary sytem
62. • All water absorption in GI tract occur via osmosis
from the lumen of the intestine through
absorptive cells and into blood capillaries
• Because water can move across the intestinal
mucosa in both direction, the absorption of water
from small intestine depend on the absorption of
electrolyte and nutrient to maintain osmotic
balance with blood
• The absorbed electrolyte,monosaccharides and
amino acid establish a concentration gradient for
water that promote water absorption via osmosis
64. Metabolisma
• Tindak balas kimia yang berlaku dalam sel hidup
yang membolehkan sel membesar dan membiak
dan mengekalkan struktur mereka.
• Dibahagikan kepada dua jenis :
1) Katabolisme : menghasilkan tenaga, seperti
pemecahan makanan dalam repirasi sel.
1) Anabolisme : memenggunakan tenaga untuk
membentuk komponen sel seperti protein dan asid
nukleik.
66. Metabolisma karbohidrat
• T’dpt 3 jenis kmpln utama karbohidrat iaitu :
a) Monosakarida – gula ringkas : glukosa
b) Disakarida – gula kompleks : maltosa
c) Polisakarida – gula kompleks y bsr : kanji,glikogen
• Laluan ini melibatkan pemecahan molekul-molekul karbohidrat di
dalam organ hati, kerana hati menyimpan glukos.
• Glukosa merupakan monosakarida yang paling penting dalam
metabolisme tubuh.
• Glukosa yang terkandung dalam nutrisi masuk ke dalam sistem
sirkulasi atau ke dalam darah untuk dipindah ke sel-sel tubuh yang
memerlukannya atau diubah pada hati menjadi molekul yang lain.
• Glukosa adalah sumber tenaga utama bagi sel-sel haiwan, dan
merupakan satu-satunya sumber tenaga bagi manusia.
67. METABOLISMA LIPID
•Lipid ialah sebatian organik yang
mengandungi karbon, hidrogen, dan
oksigen.
•Jenis utama lipid adlh lemak,
minyak, fosfolipid, dan steroid sprti
kolesterol,testosteron,estrogen dan
progesteron.
•Lemak & minyak adlh cnth lipid y
dtempatkan dlm kategori
Lipid trigliserida, y t’diri drp 1 gliserol dan
3 asid lemak.
68. METABOLISMA PROTEIN
• Protein adalah molekul-molekul y bsr &
kompleks.
• Monomer bgi protein adlh asid amino.
• Sel badan akn mengeluarkan asid amino daripada
darah dan menggunakannya untuk membina
protein, untuk kegunaan sendiri(enzymes,
membranes, muscle protein) dan untuk
mengeksport(mucus,hormones).
• ATP akan t’bentuk jika glukosa dan lemak tidak
mencukupi atau jika kekurangan Asid amino.
69. METABOLISMA NUKLEIK ASID
• Asid nukleik merupakan
sejenis makromolekul
yang terdiri daripada
rantaian nukleotida.
Dalam biokimia molekul
ini mampu membawa
maklumat atau
membentuk struktur
dalam sel.
70. • Asid nukleik yang biasa termasuk asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA) dan asid ribonukleik
(RNA). Asid nukleik terdapat dalam semua benda hidup, kerana mereka terkandung
dalam segala sel. Asid nukleik juga terdapat di dalam virus.
• Metabolisme asid nukleik adalah proses yang mana nukleotida disintesis .
• Sintesis asid nukleik juga merupakan satu
mekanisme, anabolik umumnya melibatkan tindak balas
kimia fosfat, gula pentose, dan asas bernitrogen.
• Pemusnahan asid nukleik adalah prosedur katabolik umumnya melibatkan tindak
balas enzim.
71. Diet dan Pemakanan
Diet Seimbang
• Pengambilan makanan yang mengandungi
semua nutrien seperti protein,karbohidrat,
lemak, vitamin, garam mineral, dan air serta
pelawas dalam kuantiti yang diperlukan.
Pemakanan
• kajian berkaitan dengan pengambilan makanan
untuk proses pertumbuhan ,pemulihan dan
pengawalan kesihatan.
74. Fungsi Kesan berlebihan Kesan kekurangan
Karbohidrat Membekalkan tenaga utama lebihan berat badan Marasmus(p’tumbuha
untuk keperluan badan n t’bantut)
Protein membentuk dan membaiki lemak mningkat, paras penghasilan antibodi
tisu, membentuk enzim, kalsium drh t’jejas menurun & risiko
antibodi, hormon, agen jangkitan meningkat.
pengangkut Penyakit Kwasyiokor
Lemak membekalkan tenaga & lebihan berat badan Kekurangan berat
pengekalan suhu, badan
membekalkan asid lemak
perlu, penyerapan vitamin
larut lemak
76. Makronutrien sumber fungsi Kesan
kekurangan
Kalsium susu, keju, ikan m’bina tlg & gigi yang kuat, mnolong pmbekuan drh, riket,osteoporosi
bilis, bijirin dp’lukan untk pengecutan otot & pmindahan impuls s, p’darahan
saraf. b’pnjangan.
Magnesium Bijirin,syrn Menjana enzim yang diperlukan untuk mengeluarkan Otot lemah
hijau,susu, tenaga dalam tubuh. Diperlukan oleh tubuh dalam
daging pembentukan bahan genetik dan pertumbuhan
tulang.
kalium Susu, daging, Pemindahan impuls saraf, pengecutan otot Ganguan dlm
pisang, sstm saraf
sayuran hijau
Fosforus Susu, daging, M’bntk tulang & gigi yang kuat, menggiatkan enzim- Tulang rapuh,
bijirin, telur enzim yang diperlukan tubuh untuk menukarkan kerosakan gigi.
makanan kepada tenaga.
Natrium Garam, daging, Mngekalkan keseimbangan air dlm bdn, mngekalkan Kekejangan otot
telur, susu tknn osmosis cecair dlm bdn.
77. Mikronutrien sumber Fungsi Kesan kekurangan
Iodin Udang, kerang, M’bntk hormon Goiter, kretinisme pd
makanan laut tiroksina knk-knk
Besi Hati, bayam, kacang, M’bntk hemoglobin Anemia
telur kuning
Florin Air minuman, teh, Mengukuhkan enamel Karies gigi
sayuran pd gigi
78. Vitamin
• Kumpulan sebatian organik yang diperlukan dalam kuantiti yang kecil
untuk memelihara dan mengekalkan kesihatan.
• Dikelaskan kepada 2 kumpulan :
a) Larut lemak:
- tidak dapat dikumuh melalui air kencing tetapi disimpan dalam
badan
- vitamin A, D, E dan K.
a) Larut air:
- tidak dapat disimpan dalam badan dan sebarang kuantiti
berlebihan akan larut dalam air dan dikumuhkan keluar melalui air
kencing.
- Vitamin B kompleks dan vitamin C.
79. jenis sumber fungsi Kesan kekurangan
Vitamin C buah-buahan. memelihara tisu p’hubung, kshtn skurvi ( gusi
kulit & pemulihan luka yang cepat, b’darah, kulit
mngkatkan ketahanan t’hdp lebam, sendi
jgkitan bgkak)
Vitamin D Keju, mentega dan telur. m’bantu pnyerapan kalsium & penyakit riket,
fosforus, m’bina tulang dan gigi karies gigi
yang kuat
Vitamin E sayuran hijau,minyak memelihara kshtn sstm otot, saraf kemorosotan otot
kelapa sawit. & sstm p’edaran darah, bhn & saraf
p’oksidaan bgi asid lmk tepu
Vitamin K hati,bayam dan kubis. m’bantu dalam pembekuan darah b’darah secara
berlebihan
Vitamin A susu, tomato, lobak Membina pigmen pada retina rabun malam,
merah mata untuk penglihatan jelas pada kulit tidak yang
waktu malam & memastikan sihat
p’tumbuhan sel epitelium kulit
yang sihat.
80. Air
• Merupakan 70% drp berat bdn manusia.
• Peranan :
a) Sbg pelarut
b) Medium tndk bls kimia dlm bdn.
c) Medium pengangkutan bhn mknn t’cerna, oksigen,
bhn p’kumuhan.
d) Pengawalaturan suhu bdn : Bila kekurangan air, suhu
tubuh akan menjadi panas dan naik. Khdiran air akan
m’bntu m’stabilkan suhu bdn.
e) Sbg pelincir : mngurangkan geseran tulang pd sendi.
f) P’kumuhan : urea,asid urik & grm mineral b’lebihan
dsingkirkn melalui air kencing dan peluh.
82. Tenaga Penting dalam Tubuh
1. Tenaga Kinetik:
Tenaga yang dibekalkan oleh sebatian
ikatan bertenaga tinggi seperti ATP, ADP,
dll.
2. Tenaga berpotensi:
Tenaga yang tidak aktif disimpan di
dalam badan dalam bentuk glikogen dan
yang terdapat dalam makanan.
83
83. Pengukuran Tenaga
1. Kalori: Jumlah tenaga haba yang
diperlukan untuk menaikkan suhu satu gram
air sebanyak satu darjah celsius.
2. Kilokalori (Kcal)
Jumlah haba yang diperlukan untuk
meningkatkan suhu 1 kg. air sebanyak
sebanyak 1 darjah celsius.
3. Unit metrik yang digunakan ialah kilojoule(KJ)
1 Kilokalori (Kcal) = 4.184 KJ)
84
84. Pengukuran Nilai Tenaga dalam Makanan
• Dengan menggunakan alat kalorimeter
• Jumlah tenaga yang dihasilkan oleh setiap
sampel protein, lemak dan karbohidrat
1 g. Karbohidrat = 4 kcal
1 g. Lemak = 9 kcal
1 g. Protein = 4 kcal
1 g. Alkohol = 7 kcal
85
85. Contoh Pengiraan 1
• Berapakah nilai tenaga yang dalam satu gelas susu
beratnya 244g ? Jika dalam susu 100g susu
mengandungi:
4.9g CHO; 3.5g protein; 3.7g lemak; 0.6 mineral
dan 1.2g vitamin
CHO = 244/100 x 4.9g x 4kcal = 47.8 kcal
Protein = 244/100 x 3.5g x 4kcal = 34.2 kcal
Lemak = 244/100 x 3.7g x 9kcal = 81.3 kcal
Jumlah nilai tenaga = 163.3 kcal
86
86. Contoh pengiraan 2
Diet mengandungi 2200 kcal dan mengandungi
210g CHO, dan 120g lemak, kira:
• Berapakah jumlah g protein dalam sajian?
• Kira peratus setiap nutrien [CHO, protein dan
lemak] dalam sajian?
87
87. a. Jumlah g protein
• CHO membekal = 210 x 4 kcal = 840 kcal
• Lemak membekal = 120 x 9 kcal = 1080 kcal
• Protein = 2200 – (1080 + 840) = 280 kcal
Jumlah g protein = 280/4 = 70 g
b. Peratus CHO, Protein dan Lemak
Peratus CHO = 840/2200 x 100 = 38.2%
Peratus Lemak = 1080/2200 x 100 = 49.1%
Peratus Protein = 280/2200 x 100 = 12.7%
88
88. Soalan:
1. Potato crisps mengandungi 6.3 g protein, 35.9g lemak
dan 49.3 karbohidrat pada tiap-tiap 100 g.
Kira nilai tenaga yang terdapat dalam 200 g potato
crips?
2. Berapakah jumlah nilai tenaga dalam satu keping
daging beratnya 90g jika dalam 100g daging
mengandungi 15.3g protein, 18.8g lemak, 0.1g
karbohidrat , 0.2g mineral 0.2 vitamins dan 65.5g air ?
89
89. 3. Diet Pak Ali membekal 2600 kcal sehari. Diet tersebut
mengandungi 250g karbohidrat, 70g protein. Kira?
a. Berapakah jumlah g lemak dalam diet Pak Ali
pada hari tersebut?
b. Kira peratus setiap nutrien (karbohidrat,
protein dan lemak) yang terdapat dalam diet
Pak Ali ?
90
90. Input Tenaga
Tenaga/kilokalori yang terdapat dalam makanan
Output Tenaga
Tenaga yang diperlukan @ digunakan
oleh tubuh untuk beberapa perkara:
• Kadar Metabolisme Asas [Basal Energy
Rate]
• Aktiviti Fizikal
• Pertumbuhan
• Tindakan Spesifik Dinamik Makanan
91
91. Bilakah Kadar Metabolisme Asas diukur?
1. Selepas 12 – 18 jam mengambil
makanan terakhir.
2. Seseorang dalam keadaan rehat.
3. Dalam bilik yang sesuai, suhu selesa.
4. Kebiasaan diukur selepas bangun
tidur waktu pagi.
92
92. Pengukuran Penggunaan tenaga
• Jumlah tenaga yang dijana @ digunakan
oleh tubuh dapat diukur secara langsung @
tidak langsung.
Kilorimetri Langsung
• Individu diletakkan di dalam kilokalorimeter
/bilik khas
• Kaedah sangat mahal. Cuma beberapa unit
terdapat di seluruh dunia
• Di Malaysia hanya satu, terdapat di
Universiti Hospital.
93
93. Kilorimetri Tak Langsung
• Kaedah yang lebih mudah
• Diukur dengan menentukan penggunaan oksigen dan
pengeluaran karbon dioksida pada masa tertentu
dengan menggunakan alat respirasi
• Dapat digunakan semasa individu berbaring rehat @
menjalankan berbagai aktiviti
• Pada setiap liter oksigen yang digunakan akan
memerlukan 4.825 kilokalori tenaga.
94
94. Kadar Metabolisme Asas [KMA]
Basal Metabolisme Rate[BMR]
• Kadar Metabolisme Asas
- Jumlah tenaga yang diperlukan oleh
tubuh untuk menjalankan proses-proses
penting dalam tubuh.
- Kadar tubuh menggunakan tenaga untuk
kekalkan fungsi penting untuk hidup.
• Kadar Metabolisme Rehat (KMR)
- Penggunaan tenaga pada keadaan yang
sama kecuali selepas makan atau berlatih
95
95. Kaedah mengira keperluan tenaga untuk
KMA (Basal Metabolisme Rate)
1. Menggunakan anggaran 1
kilokalori/minit
= 60 m/jam X 24jam/hari
= 1440 kilokalori/hari
96
96. 2. Alat Respiratori Bebedict-Roth (Penggunaan O2)
Ali mengambil 1.08 liter O2 dalam masa 6 minit. Kira
berapa jumlah keperluan tenaga KMA dalam sehari ?
[Piawai 1 liter O2 = 4.825 kcal]
6 minit Ali mengambil 1.08 liter oksigen
1 jam (60 minit) = 1.08 x 60/6
= 10.8 liter Oksigen
Sehari (24 jam) = 10.8 liter x 24 jam
= 259.2 liter Oksigen
KMA = 259.2 x 4.825
= 1251 kcal.
97
97. 3. Berasaskan Berat badan, Umur &
Jantina
• Lelaki
< 50 tahun = 1.0 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
> 50 tahun = 0.9 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
• Wanita
< 50 tahun = 0.9 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
> 50 tahun = 0.8 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
98
98. Contoh:
Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam
sehari bagi mereka yang berikut?
a. En. Adam berumur 45 tahun mempunyai berat
badan 65 kg
Keperluan tenaga KMA = 1 x 65 x 24 jam
= 1560 kcal
b. Cik Fatimah berumur 26 tahun mempunyai berat
badan 46 kg.
Keperluan tenaga KMA = 0.9 x 46 x 24 jam
= 993.6 kcal
99
99. • Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam sehari bagi
mereka berikut?
1. En. Ramlee berumur 45 tahun mempunyai berat badan
65 kg ?
2. Cik Fatimah berumur 25 tahun mempunyai berat badan
46 kg.
3. Pak Adam berumur 66 tahun mempunyai berat badan
63 kg
4. Mak Timah berumur 70 tahun mempunyai berat badan
81 kg.
100
100. 4. Kaedah Pengiraan WHO.
Gunakan Berat badan (dalam kg)
• Wanita
Berat dalam Kg x 0.95 kcal x 24 jam
• Lelaki
Berat dalam Kg x 1.0 kcal x 24 jam
Contoh:
• Aminah berumur 13 tahun dan berat badan 50 kg.
50kg x 0.95 kcal x 24 jam = 1140 Kcal
• Ramlee, berat badan 58 kg dan berumur 25 tahun
58kg x 1.0 kcal x 24 jam = 1392 Kcal
101
101. • Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam sehari bagi
mereka mengikut kiraan WHO?
1. En. Yunus berumur 48 tahun mempunyai berat badan
73 kg ?
2. Cik Rohani berumur 28 tahun mempunyai berat badan
53 kg.
3. Hamidah berumur 35 tahun mempunyai berat badan
62 kg
4. Halim berumur 70 tahun mempunyai berat badan
74 kg.
102
102. Formula FAO/WHO untuk ukur REE
[Resting Energy Expenditure]
Lelaki
3- 9 22.7w) + 495
10 - 17 17.5w + 651
18 - 29 15.3w + 679
30 - 60 11.6w + 879
> 60 13.5w + 487
103
103. Formula FAO/WHO untuk ukur REE bagi
Wanita
3-9 22.5w + 499
10-17 12.2w + 746
18-29 14.7w + 496
30-60 8.7w + 829
> 60 10.5w + 596
104
104. Latihan:
1. Aminah mempunyai berat badan 50 kg. , berumur 18
tahun . Kirakan keperluan tenaga Aminah dalam sehari
dengan menggunakan Formula REE ?
= 14.7 w + 496
= ( 14.7 x 50 ) + 496
= 735 + 496
= 1231 kcal/hari
2. Hamid mempunyai berat badan 78kg dan berumur 33
tahun. Kirakan keperluan tenaga dengan Formula
REE?
105
105. Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi
Kadar Metabolisme Asas seseorang
1. Komposisi tubuh
- Kandungan tisu seseorang.
- Tisu tanpa lemak (otot) : tinggi KMA
- Tisu berlemak sedikit tenaga
- Lelaki perlu KMA tinggi kerana mempunyai
lebih tisu tanpa lemak.
106
106. 2. Keadaan Tubuh: Jalankan aktiviti Fizikal
- 2 lelaki sama umur, tinggi & berat badan
- Jalankan tugas fizikal yang berbeza. Seorang buruh dan
seorang akauntan
- Buruh perlu banyak KMA berbanding akauntan kerana buruh
mempunyai otot-otot terbentuk berbanding akauntan
3. Jantina:
- Lelaki lebih tenaga KMA berbanding wanita
- Lelaki muda dewasa mempunyai 14% lemak daripada berat badan
- Wanita muda dewasa mempunyai 23%- 32% lemak daripada berat
badan
4. Tidur: Kurang tenaga KMA
5. Malnutrisi: Tenaga KMA rendah
107
107. 6. Tekanan mental: lebih tenaga bagi orang. yang mengalami masalah
mental
7. Suhu Tubuh
- Kalau suhu tubuh tinggi KMA tinggi
- Setiap 1 darjah tambahan suhu boleh tingkatkan 13 kcal KMA badan
8. Suhu persekitaran
- suhu panas kita perlu KMA yang rendah
- suhu sejuk kadar KMA tinggi bagi panaskan badan
9. Kehamilan
- Tenaga KMA tinggi untuk menghamil bayi
300- 330 kcal lebih daripada wanita biasa
- Ibu menyusu KMA tinggi bagi proses mengeluarkan susu
500- 550 kcal lebih daripada wanita biasa
10. Umur: Umur meningkat keperluan KMA menurun
11. Merokok: lebih 10 peratus daripada orang tidak merokok
108
108. Soalan:
Norzalina 25 tahun, tinggi 1.63 m dan berat badan
65 kg. Berikut adalah jumlah kalori yang dimakan iaitu
karbohidrat 190g; protein 120g dan lemak 93g mengikut 24-
jam dietary recallnya.
a. Dengan menggunakan data di atas kirakan:
(i) jumlah kalori dan tunjukkan peratus
karbohidrat, protein dan lemak ?
(ii) Peratus pengambilan makanan
b. Beri penjelasan tentang diet yang diamalkan oleh
Norzalina mengikut perkiraan WHO menggunakan
(i) berat badan dan (ii) norma REE
109
109. (i) Jumlah pengambilan kalori:
a. karbohidrat = 190 X 4 kcal = 760 kcal
b. protein = 120 X 4 kcal = 480kcal
c. lemak = 93 X 9 kcal = 837 kcal
Jumlah = 2077kcal
(ii) Peratus pengambilan makanan
a. karbohidrat = 760/2077 X 100 = 36.6 %
b. protein = 480/2077 X 100 = 23.1 %
c. lemak = 837 /2077 X 100 = 40.3%
110
110. • i. Berat badan dengan perkiraan WHO
= 0.95 kcal X kg (berat badan) X 24 jam
= 0.95 kcal X 65 kg X 24 jam
= 1482 kcal
ii. Berat badan berdasarkan Norm
= (14.7W) + 496
= (14.7 X 65 ) + 496
= 955.5 + 496
= 1451.5 kcal
111
111. • Berdasarkan penjadualan Pemakanan
Norzalina telah mengambil lebihan
makanan:
• Mengikut kiraan berat badan mengikut
Formula WHO
= 595 kcal [2077 – 1482]
• Mengikut keperluan norm
= 525.9 kcal [2077 – 1551.1 ]
112
116. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• ULCERS – erosion of the surface of the
alimentary canal generally associated with
some kind of irritant
117. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• CONSTIPATION – a
condition in which the
large intestine is emptied
with difficulty.
• Too much water is
reabsorbed
• and the solid waste
hardens
118. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• DIARRHEA – a gastrointestinal
disturbance characterized by
decreased water absorption and
increased peristaltic activity of the
large intestine.
• This results in increased, multiple,
watery feces.
• This condition may result in severe
dehydration, especially in infants
119. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• APPENDICITIS – an inflammation of the
appendix due to infection
• Common treatment is removal of the
appendix via surgery
120. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• GALLSTONES – an accumulation of
hardened cholesterol and/or calcium
deposits in the gallbladder
• Can either be “passed” (OUCH!!) or
surgically removed
121. Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
• ANOREXIA NERVOSA - a psychological
condition where an individual thinks they
appear overweight and refuses to eat.
• Weighs 85% or less than what is
developmentally expected for age and height
• Young girls do not begin to menstruate at the
appropriate age.
