3 Aristotle's Biology

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History and Philosophy of Science

Education

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ORIGIN OF CHORDATES Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms: Non-chordata- including animals without notochord. Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis. Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) . Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body. It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates. It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed. Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils. However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms. Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable. Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages. Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.

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INTRODUCTION The jaw (Upper and lower) is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth. It is typically used for grasping and manipulating food. Jaw suspension means the fusion of upper jaw and lower jaw or skull for efficient biting. There are different ways in which these attachments are attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates. In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically. The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth. The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian. It is believed that the hyoid system suspends the jaw from the brain case of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws. The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians. Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved. Jaw Suspension or Suspensoria: The method by which the upper and lower jaws are suspended or attached from the chondrocranium is known as jaw suspension or suspensorium. Amongst the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) arch consists of = a dorsal palato pterygoquadrate bar forming the upper jaw, = and ventral Meckel’s cartilage forms the lower jaw. The second (hyoid) arch consists of = a dorsal hyomandibular supporting and suspending the jaws with the cranium, and a ventral hyoid. The remaining visceral arches support the gills and are, hence, called branchial arches. Thus, splanchnocranium forms the jaws and suspends them with the chondrocranium.

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Abstract The embryology of plants and echinoderm oppose the “Biogenetic Law (Recapitulation theory)”. The present of gill slits in vertebrate’s embryos are the evidence of “Biogenetic law”. But except in fishes, other vertebrate’s embryos have never gills. Both the early stage and the tail bud stages (later stages) of embryos are differing morphologically, instead of similarity. So, Haeckel manufactured the pictures about the similarities of various vertebrate embryos. Thus, Haeckel's “Biogenetic Law” is faked during Haeckel’s as well as Darwin's lifetime. Again, the vertebrate’s embryos are observable but this Law is based on three assumptions. So, many researches declared that invalid the “Biogenetic Law”. Consequently, the publishers of biology started to remove the Haeckel’s drawing from their biology books. Haeckel’s evolutionary tree is based on the “Biogenetic law”. So, Haeckel’s evolutionary tree (Phylogenetic tree /Darwinian tree) is not valid. Darwin exploited the “Recapitulation theory” for the strong evidence of his theory. Hence, embryological evidences are opposite to Darwin’s theory

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Progress in understanding the molecular basis of primary neurulation has occurred on two fronts: neural induction and shaping and bending of the neural plate. In regard to the former, the neural plate is now known to be the default state of the ectoderm, and induction of the neural plate actually involves suppressing the formation of the epidermal ectoderm (neural induction is not considered further herein). In regard to shaping and bending of the neural plate, about 100 mutations in the mouse have been identified that result in defective shaping and/or bending and, consequently, result in neural tube defects (NTDs); thus, these mutations provide insight into which genes are involved in both normal and abnormal neurulation. Because these form-shaping events of neurulation are driven by changes in cell behavior, as discussed earlier, it is not surprising that mutation of cytoskeletal, extracellular matrix/cell adhesion, cell cycle, and cell death genes results in NTDs. Neurulation is a highly choreographed morphogenetic series of events that must be precisely timed and coordinated across multiple tissues. This presumably involves signaling among tissues. It is the hope of studies using mouse mutations that such signaling pathways will be identified, ultimately leading to an understanding of the molecular basis of neurulation and the formation of NTDs in both animal models and ultimately in humans. In the following sections, we discuss what has been learned about the molecular basis of shaping and bending of the neural plate.Embryology Neurulation is the critical morphogenetic event occurring during the fourth week of human gestation, converting the previously developed neural plate into the ectoderm covered neural tube that will eventually differentiate into the brain and spinal cord. Genetic regulation of the events involved in mammalian neural tube morphogenesis is a complicated process that involves a multitude of genes. These genes have vital functions in a range of biological activities that are thought to include signaling molecules, transcription proteins and factors, cytoskeletal and gap junction proteins, growth factors, and tumor suppressor genes (Copp et al., 2003; Ewart et al., 1997; Sah et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 1996). The neural tube, formed by the cell shape changes and movements, ultimately fuses at several discrete points.Neurulation (or primary neurulation) starts in the fourth week of gestation and is the process that leads to the formation of the neural tube from the neural plate, the rudiment of the CNS [34]. It encompasses four essential and overlapping events: (1) neural induction, (2) shaping, (3) bending of the neural plate, and (4) closure of the neural tube. Neural induction (1) is the process of neural plate formation, that is, the beginning of the development of the CNS. It occurs during gastrulation starting on day 18. As described earlier, cells of the ectoderm differentiate into the neuroectoderm, a pseudostratif.

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