Research methodology

1. Research Methodology
PART 1
Introduction to Research & Research Methodology
M S Sridhar
Head, Library & Documentation
ISRO Satellite Centre
Bangalore 560017
E-mail: sridhar@isac.gov.in & sridharmirle@yahoomail.com

2. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 2
Preamble
• Why did you choose research methodology ?
• Understanding the concepts is important
• Study materials are often incomplete & lack
cohesiveness and integration
• Suggested main reading : Kothari’s Research
Methodology (see references at the end)

3. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 3
Synopsis
1. Introduction to Research & Research methodology
2. Selection and formulation of research problem
3. Research design and plan
4. Experimental designs
5. Sampling and sampling strategy or plan
6. Measurement and scaling techniques
7. Data collection methods and techniques
8. Testing of hypotheses
9. Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of
data
10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences
11. Report writing

4. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 4
Background
Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the
nature through experience, reasoning and research
1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information)
Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived from
encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his
environment
Experience of others
Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources
EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses,
but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard
events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific
Contd...

5. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 5
Background Contd.
2. REASONING
Deductive (Aristotle) – From whole to part
Inductive (Francis Bacon) – From number of observations
Combined
3. RESEARCH
Systematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena, I.e.,
Systematic & controlled
Empirical
Self-correcting
Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must
be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of
truth (particularly in natural sciences)

6. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 6
Part I: Introduction to Research & Research Methodology
Synopsis
1. Introduction to Research & Research
methodology
2. Selection and formulation of
research problem
3. Research design and plan
4. Experimental designs
5. Sampling and sampling strategy or
plan
6. Measurement and scaling
techniques
7. Data collection methods and
techniques
8. Testing of hypotheses
9. Statistical techniques for
processing & analysis of data
10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing
inferences
11. Report writing
• What is research ?
• Why research ?
• Terms used
Research Methodology
Research Method
Research Technique
• Research methodology
• Scientific method
• Benefits of research
methodology
• Qualities of good research &
researcher
• Research process
• Types of research

7. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 7
What is Research ?
1. A voyage of discovery; A journey; An attitude; An experience; A
method of critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking
facts for principles
2. An art of scientific investigation
• Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic
• Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data
3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A movement from the
known to the unknown
• Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic and
scientific method of finding solution to a problem
• Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to answer the question
• Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective
(purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some
factors
4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain fresh
insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge
In a broad sense, everyone does research, but don’t write it up; Without
trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in
the experience, opinions and hearsay

8. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 8
Why research ?
1. To get a degree
2. To get respectability
3. To face a challenge
4. To solve a problem
5. To get intellectual joy
6. To serve society
• by increasing standard of living in case of S&T, and
• by showing right path to society in case of Social and
Behavioural Sciences

9. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 9
Terms Used
1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in research
operations
Examples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving
average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc.
2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and
constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data)
Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records,
case study, etc.
Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are
used in performing research operations, i.e..,
Collection of data
Statistical processing & analysis (tests)
To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained
NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost
interchangeably used

10. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 10
Research Methodology
• A science of studying how research is done scientifically
• A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically
adopting various steps
• Methodology helps to understand not only the products of
scientific inquiry but the process itself
• Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their
limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and
consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at
the ‘frontiers of knowledge’

11. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 11
Benefits of Research Methodology
1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge
2. ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look
at things in life objectively
3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or
a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction &
inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term
particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of
misinformation)
4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to
study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions;
Understand the material which no other kind of work can match
5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to
evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable
confidence and take rational decisions
6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think crically
Contd...

12. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 12
Benefits of Research Methodology Contd...
Additional benefits in case of librarianship:
i. Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of
library
ii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other
information resources
iii. Enables critical evaluation of literature
iv. Develops special interests & skills
v. Helps to understand attitude of others
vi. Creates awareness of special needs of research
process
vii. Facilitates reference and information service

13. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 13
Benefits of Research Assignments to Students
1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a
product to be evaluated
2. Good assignments help students to learn about their
audience
3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in
contextual information
4. Good assignments provide interim readers
5. As with any real project, good assignments give
students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

14. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 14
Scientific Method
• The method of all logically trained minds
• The pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations
• Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates
• Tenets of scientific faith
1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes that events are determined
by other circumstances (i.e.. Causal links can eventually be
uncovered and understood)
2. EMPIRICISM: Verifiable by observation and ‘evidence’ (data)
3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: Phenomenon should be explained
in the most economical way possible
4. GENERALITY: More problematic in social & behavioral science
than natural science

15. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 15
Basic Postulates of Scientific Method
1. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism)
2. Utilizes relevant concepts
3. Committed to only objective considerations
4. Presupposes ethical neutrality
5. Results into probabilistic predictions
6. Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and
testing through replication
7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific theories
8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated
by the demands of logic and objective procedure

16. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 16
Qualities of Good Research
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD EMPLOYED ENSURES:
1. Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts
2. Procedure enumerated to keep continuity
3. Carefully planned design leading to objective results
4. Complete frankness; flaws reported and their effect estimated
5. Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis
6. Carefully checked data for validity & reliability
7. Conclusions confined to those justified by the data
8. Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty &
integrity of researcher
Note: 38% of papers in Nature and 25% of papers in BMJ contain one or
more statistical errors; 4% of errors caused non-significant findings to be
misrepresented as significant (The Economist, 5 June ’04, p 70-71)

17. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 17
Qualities of Good Research contd..
1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing &
intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking
2. CONTROLLED – Variables are identified &
controlled, wherever possible
3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning &
logical process of induction & deduction
4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to
results (validation)
5. REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study
6. SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to
public scrutiny by fellow professionals
contd..

18. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 18
Research Process
1. Selection & formulation of Research Problem
2. Literature survey
3. Development of working hypotheses
4. Research design
5. Sampling strategy or sample design
6. Pilot (quick & dirty) study
7. Data collection
8. Processing & analysis of data
9. Testing hypotheses
10. Interpretation & generalisation
11. Preparation of the report
NOTE: 1. Above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a
series of closely related, continuously overlapping and
interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions
2. What lies ahead is hard work as well as pleasure of the hunt; some
frustration, but more of satisfaction; periods of confusion, but
confidence that, at the end, it will all come together

19. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 19
Ethics of Research
• As a profound social activity research connects us to those who will use
it, to those whose research we used, through them, to the research that
our sources used; Hence beyond technique, we need to think about
ethics of civil communication
• In addition to construction of bonds within any community, ethics deal
with a range of moral and immoral choices; Research challenges us to
define individual moral principles; Academic researchers are less
tempted to sacrifice principle for a gain than commercial researchers
Plagiarism, claiming credit for results of others, misreport sources or invent
results, data with questionable accuracy, concealing objections that cannot be
rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroy or conceal sources
and data important for those who follow
• Beyond simple moral Do not to what we should affirmatively do, i.e.,
concern for the integrity of the work of the community combined with
narrow moral standards with the larger ethical dimension
• Research done in the best interests of others is also in your own

20. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 20
Types of Research
1. DESCRIPTIVE/ SURVEY (EX-
POST FACTO)
• Surveys & fact-finding
enquiries
• State of affairs as it exists
• No control over variables
• Try to discover causes (I.e.,
ex- post facto)
2. APPLIED
• Finding a solution for an
immediate problem & not
rigorous / flexible in
application of the conditions
ANALYTICAL
• Uses facts or information already
available and analyze to make a
critical evaluation
FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE)
• Concerned with generalizations &
formulation of theory
• Knowledge for knowledge’s sake
(I.e., pure or basic research)
contd….

21. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 21
Types of Research contd…
3. QUANTITATIVE
• Measured & expressed in terms of
quantity
• Expression of a property or
quantity in numerical terms
• Quantitative research helps:
i. Precise measurement
ii. Knowing trends or changes
overtime
iii. Comparing trends or individual
libraries / units
4 CONCEPTUAL
• Related to some abstract idea or
theory (for thinkers &
philosophers)
• Relies on literature
QUALITATIVE
• Involves quality or kind
• Helps in having insight into
problems or cases
EMPIRICAL
• Relies on experience or
observation alone, i.e.,data
based research
• Capable of being verified by
observation or experiment
• Experimenter has control
over variables
contd…

22. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 22
Types of Research contd…
5. OTHER TYPES
i. One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/ Developmental &
Trend or prediction studies (the time domain)
ii. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research
iii. Clinical vs diagnostic studies
iv. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the
problem) studies
v. Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative)
vi. Content Analysis is one such quantitative method – a multipurpose
method developed specifically for investigating a broad spectrum of
problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of
inference. Example: word usage rates, word counts, etc.
vii. Correlational research
viii. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research

23. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 23
Categorization of Research Design (Design Typology Criteria)
1. The degree of formulation of problem
a. Exploratory or Formulated
b. Descriptive, Diagnostic, Analytical
2. The topical scope
a. Historical study b. Survey, Delphi
Study c. Case study (History, Material),
Accounts, Episodes, Story of experience
d. Statistical study
3. The search environment, I.e., the
field or lab setting
a. survey or lab experiment
4. The time dimension
a. Cross Sectional (One time) b.
Longitudinal, Trend, Developmental
(Follow up or Cohort Studies in UK &
Panel Studies in USA)
5. The mode of data collection
a. Survey b. Observational
6. The manipulation of the
variables under study
a. Experimental (Hypothesis
Testing ) b. Ex post facto
7. The nature of the
relationship among
variables
a. Causal/ Prediction b.
Descriptive/ Relational (i)
Association (ii) Correlation
8. a. Conceptual ( Fundamental,
Basic, Pure) b. Empirical
(Applied, Action)
9. a. Conclusion oriented
b. Decision oriented
10. a. Qualitative b. Quantative

24. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 24
1. Anderson, Janathan, et. al. Thesis and assignment writing. New Delhi:
Wiley, 1970.
2. Best, Joel. Damned lies and statistics. California: University of
California Press, 2001.
3. Best, Joel. More damned lies and statistics; how numbers confuse
public issues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004
4. Body, Harper W Jr. et.al. Marketing research: text and cases. Delhi: All
India Traveler Bookseller, 1985.
5. Booth, Wayne C, et. al. The craft of research. 2 ed. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 2003.
6. Chicago guide to preparing electronic manuscripts: For authors and
publishers. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
7. Cohen, Louis and Manion, Lawrence. Research methods in education.
London: Routledge, 1980.
8. Goode, William J and Hatt, Paul K. Methods on social research.
London; Mc Graw Hill, 1981.
9. Gopal, M.H. An introduction to research procedures in social sciences.
Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970.
10. Koosis, Donald J. Business statistics. New York: John Wiley,1972.
11. Kothari, C.R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2 ed.,
New Delhi: Vishwaprakashan, 1990.
ReferencesReferences

25. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 25
12. Miller, Jane E. The Chicago guide to writing about numbers. Chicago:
the University of Chicago Press, 2004.
13. Rodger, Leslie W. Statistics for marketing. London: Mc-Graw Hill,
1984.
14. Salvatoe, Dominick. Theory and problems of statistics and
econometrics (Schaum’s outline series). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
15. Spiegel, Murray R. Schauim’s outline of theory and problems of
statistics in SI units. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill , 1981.
16. Simpson, I. S. How to interpret statistical data: a guide for librarians
and information scientists. London: Library Association, 1990.
17. Slater, Margaret ed. Research method in library and information
studies. London: Library Association, 1990.
18. Turabian, Kate L. A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and
dissertations. 6 ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1996.
19. Young, Pauline V. Scientific social surveys and research. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Ltd., 1984.
20. Walizer, Michael H and Wienir, Paul L. Research methods and
analysis: searching for relationships. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.
21. Williams, Joseph M. Style: towards clarity and grace. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1995.
ReferencesReferences contd.contd.

26. M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 26
About the Author
Dr. M. S. Sridhar is a post graduate in Mathematics and Business
Management and a Doctorate in Library and Information Science. He
is in the profession for last 36 years. Since 1978, he is heading the Library
and Documentation Division of ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore. Earlier
he has worked in the libraries of National Aeronautical Laboratory
(Bangalore), Indian Institute of Management (Bangalore) and University
of Mysore. Dr. Sridhar has published 4 books, 81 research articles, 22
conferences papers, written 19 course materials for BLIS and MLIS, made
over 25 seminar presentations and contributed 5 chapters to books. E-mail:
sridharmirle@yahoo.com, mirlesridhar@gmail.com, sridhar@isac.gov.in ;
Phone: 91-80-25084451; Fax: 91-80-25084476.