Traditional plough agriculture led to more unequal gender norms that persist today. Societies that historically used ploughs often developed norms where women's roles were in the home and men's roles were in public spheres like politics and the workforce. This division of labor evolved into beliefs that persisted even after societies moved out of agriculture. Analyses of data on historical plough use and modern outcomes like female labor force participation and political representation across countries and immigrant populations provide evidence these gender norms have remained culturally persistent over time.
The Historical Origin of Differences in Gender Norms
1. The historical origin of
differences in gender norms
Paola Giuliano
UCLA Anderson School of Management
NBER, CEPR and IZA
2. Global differences in gender norms
โข There are vast cross-societal differences in cultural attitudes
about the appropriate role of women
โข This is reflected in both value-based survey responses and
objective measures like female labor force participation
โข โWhen jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job
than womenโ (from the WVS):
โ Proportion of the population that answer โyesโ:
โ Iceland 3.6%; USA 10.6%; Rwanda 28%, Switzerland 35.1%
โ Japan 60%; Pakistan 79%; Egypt 94.9%
โข Female labor force participation rates in 2000:
โ Burundi 93.2%; Tanzania 89.3%; Iceland 83.3%; USA 70.4%
โ Japan 59%; Italy 46%; Pakistan 30.3%; Egypt 21.5%
3. Explaining the gender division of labor
โข Proximate causes have been well documented
(e.g., Iversen and Rosenbluth, 2010)
โข Some have suggested that cultural norms and
beliefs may also be important:
โข Fortin (2005), Fernandez and Fogli (2010)
โข But where do cultural norms come from?
โ Ester Boserup (1970): โWomenโs Role in Economic
Developmentโ
โ According to Boserup the answer lies in the form of
agriculture practiced traditionally
4. Outline
ร Review work by Alesina, Giuliano and Nunn (2013) on the
historical persistence of FLFP and gender norms
ร Present evidence on additional societal differences on the
historical role of women in society
ร Marriage arrangements
ร The presence of the dowry versus the bride price
ร Differences in inheritance rules favoring women
ร Present evidence on persistence of gender roles looking at
differences in:
ร Economic participation and opportunity
ร Educational attainment
ร Health and survival
ร Political empowerment
ร Sex ratio at birth
ร Overview of other historical determinants of gender
differences
5. Historical origin of gender roles
ร Agricultural technology
ร Language
ร Geography
ร Preindustrial societal characteristics
ร Family structures
ร Religion
ร Historical shocks
10. Boserupโs hypothesis
1. Certain parts of the world historically used plough agriculture
2. In these locations, men had a biological advantage for work
in the field
ร This is because the person had to pull the plough or control an
animal that pulled the plough (neither of which is an easy task)
ร The use of the plough also leaves little need for weeding, a job in
which women almost always specialize (Foster and Rosenzweig,
1996)
ร Plough agriculture was less compatible with simultaneous child care
(Brown, 1970)
3. Therefore, men tended to work in the field outside of the
home, while women worked within the home
4. Over centuries, the belief that the home was โnormalโ or
โnaturalโ place for women evolved
5. These beliefs continue to persist today (even after a
movement out of agriculture)
11. Historic plough use
ร The original information, from the Ethnographic Atlas,
categorizes 1267 ethnic groups into the following four
categories:
1. Data missing (109)
2. Plough absent (999)
3. Plough exists but not aboriginal (18)
4. Aboriginal plough use prior to contact (141)
ร Using this, we construct an indicator variable that equals
one if ethnic group e used plough agriculture: plough
eI
18. Country-level: outcomes of interest
1. Female labor force participation- from WDI
2. Female representation in position of power:
ร Proportion of firm owners/managers that are female โ from WB
Enterprise surveys
ร Proportion of seats in national parliament held by women โ from WDI
3. Controls: all historical controls; contemporary: log real per
capita income and log real per capita income squared
20. Individual-level: outcomes of interest
1. Female labor force participation
2. Subjective measures of gender role attitudes underlying
the objective country-level measures:
ร Employment: โWhen job are scarce, men should have more right to
a job than womenโ
ร (i) agree, (ii) neither, (iii) disagree
ร Variable equal to 1 if agree and zero otherwise
ร Leadership and politics: โOn the whole, men make better political
leaders that women doโ
ร (i) strongly disagree, (ii) disagree, (iii) agree, (iv) strongly agree
ร Variable takes on values 1, 2, 3, 4.
21. US Immigrants Data
ร From the March Supplement of the Current Population
Survey, 1994-2009
ร Country of origin and country of birth of individual mother
and father is recorded
ร Look at:
ร Second generation
ร By mother country of origin
ร By father country of origin
ร Both parents of the same ethnicity
ร All women
ร Married women
ร By country of origin (mother, father and both parents)
ร By husband country of origin
23. Europe Immigrants Data
ร European Social Survey: (5 waves 2002-2010), 26
European countries
ร Country of origin and country of birth of individual mother
and father is recorded
ร Look at:
ร Second generation
ร By mother country of origin
ร By father country of origin
ร Both parents of the same ethnicity
ร Question on beliefs about the role of women in societies:
โWhen Jobs are scarceโ
26. Other differences in social norms: evidence from the
past
ร Goody (1976)
ร In female farming communities, a man with more than one wife can
cultivate more land than a man with only one wife. Therefore polygamy
is expected to be more common in societies with shifting cultivation.
ร In societies where women do most of the agricultural work it is the
bridegroom who must pay bride-wealth, on the contrary where women
are less actively engaged in agriculture marriage payments come
usually from the girlโs family.
27. Table 3
Traditional Plough Use and Social Norms in the Pre-Industrial Period
(1) (2) (3)
Dowry Polygamy Matrilineal society
Traditional plough agriculture 0.135*** -0.610*** -0.068**
(0.028) (0.044) (0.033)
Ethnographic controls yes yes yes
Observations 1,080 1,070 1,074
R-squared 0.171 0.211 0.022
Notes: The unit of observation is an ethnic group from the Ethnographic Atlas. โEthnographic
controlsโ include: the suitability of the local environment for agriculture, the presence of large
domesticated animals, the proportion of the local environment that is tropical or subtropical, an
index of settlement density, and an index of political development. Coefficients are reported with
robust standard errors in brackets. ***, ** and * indicate significance at the 1, 5 and 10 % level.
28. Persistence
ร OECD Gender, Institutions and Development Database:
ร Parental authority: whether parental authority is granted to the father
and the mother equally or not
ร Inheritance rules: a variable indicating whether inheritance practices
are in favour of male heirs.
ร Freedom of movement: whether women have freedom to move outside
of the house.
ร Dress code: a variable indicating the obligation to wear a veil in public.
ร Poligamy: a variable indicating whether poligamy is accepted or legal.
ร All variables go from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates more gender inequality
31. Traditional plough use and the Global Gender Gap index
ECU
ISL
PER
KGZ
TTO
JAM
GUY
KAZ
PAN
MUS
MDG
JPN
AZE
ZWE
NGA
CRI
FJI
UGA
BWA
MLI
BEN
BFA
SAU
BOL
NIC
GMB
ARG
AGO
NAM
GTM
SEN
FRA
GHAGHA
BHS
BLZ
CHN
RUSSLV
CHEBLR
BELSUR
LUXMEX
TZA
CMR
ZMB
NZL
MNG
UKR
UZB
BRA
PHL
THA
ITA
IRN
NOR
ZAF
COL
USA
CAN
DNK
SWE
IRL
AUT
VNM
NLD
GBRDEU
MLT
ROU
TCD
FIN
SVN
ARE
MOZ
BHR
VEN
HND
KWT
IDN
HRV
MWI
TUNCZE
OMN
ARM
PAK
POL
SVKHUN
KENEST
MKDLTU
LVACHL
MDA
BGR
GRCAUSMRTCYP
YEM
BGD
MDV
KOR
PRY
MYS
KHM
DZA
ESP
PRT
JOR
TUR
URY
LKA
SGP
DOM
MAR
ETH
SYR
BRN
ISR
EGY
IND
NPL
LSO
GEO
ALB
TJK
-.150.15
e(Theglobalgendergapindex|X)
-1 0 1
e(Traditional plough use | X)
(coef = -0.43 t-stat = - 3.06)
The Global Gender Gap Index examines the gap between men and women in four
categories: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and
Survival and Political Empowerment.
34. Other aspects of long-term persistence of gender roles
ร Language
ร The grammatical features of a language are inherited from the distant
past and the gender system is one of the most stable linguistic
features
ร Gay et al. (2013) show that women speaking languages that more
pervasively mark gender distinctions are less likely to participate in
economic and political activities and more likely to encounter barriers
in their access to land and credit
35. Geography
ร Geography
ร Carranza (2014) points out that soil texture determines the
workability of the soil and the technology used in land preparation
ร She distinguishes between loamy and clayey soil textures
ร Deep tillage, possible in loamy soil but not in clayey soil textures,
reduces the need for transplanting, fertilizing and weeding, activities
typically performed by women.
ร She shows that soil texture explains a large part of the variation in
womenโs relative participation in agriculture and the infant sex ratio
36. Pre-industrial societal characteristics
ร Matrilineality
ร Lineage and inheritance are traced through female members
ร More common to reside in the wifeโs natal home with her other
ร Property is handed down from women to their daughters and
granddaughters
ร Long term implications on:
ร Competition (Gneezy et al., 2009)
ร Risk aversion (Gong, Yan and Yang, 2015)
ร Social interaction between family members (Lowes, 2016)
37. Competition (Gneezy et al., 2009)
ร Maasai in Tanzania and Khasi in Northeast India
ร Subjects were given a choice to either partake in a ball-
throwing game without competition or to compete with an
anonymous person from the same village playing the same
game.
ร Among the Maasai, 50 percent of men chose to compete,
but only 26 percent of women
ร Among the Khasi, 54 percent of women chose to compete
versus 39 percent of men
38. Risk aversion (Gong et al., 2012) and social interaction
between family members (Lowes, 2016)
ร Matrilineal Mosuo and patrilineal Yi: men always less risk
averse but the gap is smaller among the Mosuo
ร Lowes (2016) collect data on 320 couples in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (40% matrilineal): matrilineal women are
less altruistic toward their spouses because they maintain
strong allegiances to their own lineage.
39. Matrilocality (Jayachandran, 2015)
ร In Northern India, where the social structure is patrilocal,
gender inequality is more pronounced. Parents gain more
returns to investment in a sonโs health and education
because he will remain a part of their family.
40. The Dowry versus the Bride Price
ร Dowry: payment that a brideโs parents make to the couple at
the time of marriage
ร Bride price: transfer from the groom family to the brideโs
family.
ร Paying a dowry is important to explain preferences for sons
(Das Gupta et al. 2003). It reduces investment in human
capital, increases domestic violence and even leads to
dowry death when the payment is not adequate
41. Differences in historical family structure and religion
ร In strong family ties societies, family solidarity is based on an unequal
division of family work between men and women (the male-breadwinner
hypothesis), with men working full time and women dedicating
themselves to housework (Alesina and Giuliano, 2014)
ร Important gender differences in the context of the Protestant
Reformation (Becker et al., 2008) and of missionary activity in Africa
(Nunn 2014)
ร Becker et al. 2008 use data on school enrollment from the Prussian
Population Census in 1816 and show that a larger share of Protestants
in a county or town was associated with a larger share of girls in the total
school population.
ร Nunn (2014) show that Catholicism and Protestantism had a long-run
impact on educational attainment, but Protestant missions had a long
term effect on the education of women and lower on the education of
men. For Catholic missions the opposite was true.
42. Natural experiments in history
ร Historical shocks can alter the relative position of women in a society.
ร Slave trade: Teso (2016) exploits the demographic shock generated by the
transatlantic slave trade in Africa between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries,
women had to take up traditional male work. Women belonging to ethnic groups that
were more severely hit by the slave trade are today more likely to be in the labor force
and to be employed in a higher-ranked occupation, they are also more likely to
participate in household decisions and to have lower fertility
ร Wars: high mobilization rates had a strong impact on gender roles (Goldin and Olivetti,
2013) or Fernandez et al. (2014)
ร Exposure to state-socialist regimes: compare women who lived in East Germany
before German unification with women who lived in West Germany. Career success is
11 percentage points higher for women in the East. (Campa and Serafinelli, 2016)
ร Long term effect of the male-biased sex ratio: use British policy experiment of
sending convicts to Australia, male convicts outnumbered female convicts by a ratio of
six to one. Gender imbalance was associated with women being more likely to get
married, participating less in the labor force, and being less likely to work in high-
ranking occupations. The effect persists until today (Grosjean and Khattar, 2016)
ร The cotton revolution: adoption of spinning and weaving technologies from 1300
until 1840 allowed women to produce cotton textiles at home and sell clothing.
Increase in economic power implied an improvement of sex ratio at birth, lower widow
suicide and higher female labor force participation (Xue, 2016)
43. Conclusions
ร History matters in explaining differences in gender roles
observed today.
ร Various evidence suggests that differences in cultural norms
regarding gender roles emerge in response to specific
historical situations but tend to persist even after the
historical conditions have changed