1. Psychology Revision:
The Approaches
Objectives: You will use revising
(DUH!), noticing and reasoning to
relearn and appreciate the first unit…

2. Starter
• For each of the approaches we have
looked at please pick the character that
you most associate with it.
• Explain why…

3. • Behavioural
• Biological
• Cognitive
• SLT
• Psycho-
Dynamic
• Humanist

4. Word Match Time!
• Classical conditioning
• Unconscious
• Modelling
• Mental processes
• Genes
• Concept of worth
• Nature
• Operant conditioning
• Free will
• Evolution
• Models
• Id
• Nurture
• Reinforcement
• Behavioural
• Biological
• Cognitive
• SLT
• Psycho-
Dynamic
• Humanist

5. • The biological approach believes us to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. We become ill,
medically and/or psychologically, because of physiological or genetic damage, disease, or accident. It is the only
approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviours from a medical/biological, and thus
physical point of view. Take language. The biological approach says we are biologically hard-wired to acquire
language, and possess a language acquisition device. For the existence of a LAD the approach would direct us to
structures in our left cerebral cortex such as Broca’s area, responsible for our ability to articulate speech, and
Wernicke’s area, responsible for our ability to comprehend speech. Also of assistance in the acquisition of
language is memory. We store and retrieve memories of/for sounds in our temporal lobe. We remember what we
see using our visual cortex. We recognise and remember patterns using our parietal lobe etc. Thus for the
biological approach, psychologically we are the result of our genetics and the workings of our
central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and endocrine system. The influence of Charles Darwin has
the approach judge that we have evolved both physically and psychologically in response to our environment. Our
genetics account for our shared physique and emotions. Common emotions, such as aggression, are understood
as a result of our physiology and genetics. Our genetics also influence our individual development, physically and
psychologically. Because of the emphasis on a physical/biological cause to psychological difficulties, the
approach has been very influential in the use of physical therapies, or chemotherapy, as a treatment for a variety
of mental disorders. Schizophrenia is understood caused by the over-production of the neurotransmitter
dopamine. Depression comes from physiological changes to neurons that dull them to serotonin. Both disorders
are treated with drugs. The symptoms of schizophrenia are controlled by neuroleptics, which have side effects.
The symptoms of depression are controlled by anti-depressants such as Prozac, chemotherapy also not without
controversy. In both instances there is thought to be an environmental influence to the onset of the disorder,
something the biological approach does not explore too well. In its influence into the study of
individual differences, the biological approach also suggests genetics plays its part. In consideration of the likes of
personality and intelligence, again however, the biological approach plays down the influence of environment on
genotype and phenotype. The biological approach finds itself firmly on the genetic, or nativist side of the
‘nature-nurture’ debate on these issues. Its understanding of us as neurons, structures and functions in the brain,
hormones, our genome etc. has seen it accused of being reductionist, mechanistic and deterministic. The
biological approach has also attracted some attention because of its use of non-human subjects in experimental
research.

6. Biological Approach
• Strengths-
• Scientific
• Genes
• Evolution
• Darwin
• DNA
• Strong nature not so
much nurture
• Useful applications, eg,
drugs
• Limitations-
• Reductionist- ie- it
explains all thoughts and
behaviours in terms of
nerves or chemicals
• Simplistic- does not fully
appreciate environmental
factors
• Ethical issues- is
mapping genes leading to
cloning?
• V. scientific- ecological
validity…

7. • The psychoanalytic approach understands us from the point of view of our unconscious and early
childhood experiences. The contents of our unconscious can give us a neurosis, which is an
anxiety state that affects the quality of your life. Freud's psychodynamic structure of personality
suggests that our behaviour is influenced by id, ego and superego. We are born id, and acquire
ego and superego by puberty. Freud also has a
psychosexual theory of adult personality development, where he says our personality develops in
stages during childhood. If we fail to resolve conflicts associated with a particular (oral, anal,
phallic, latent and genital) stage of personality development Freud said we could develop
fixations. These can show themselves in our personality-related behaviours e.g. an adult thumb
sucker would be said to have an oral fixation. We unconsciously use ego-defence mechanisms to
protect ourselves from the anxieties of life. An application of the approach is found in
psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Features of psychoanalytic psychotherapy include
free association, dream analysis, analysis of parapraxes, resistance, regression using hypnosis
and transference. The main limitation of the psychoanalytic approach is evidence generated in its
support. The case study is non-scientific. Further, it is hugely difficult to scientifically or otherwise,
find support for its hypothetical constructs like id, ego superego etc. Also, Freud used a small
sample of neurotic middle class Viennese women, and generalised his findings out to all of us.
His emphasis on the psychosexual saw splits with Adler and Jung. Erikson also later questioned
his sexual emphasis on the emerging personality. Adler, Jung and Erikson went on to develop the
broader psychodynamic approach, which includes psychoanalysis. The psychodynamic approach
believes it is the social, rather than the sexual world, that has a greater influence on our
personality development.

8. Psychodynamic Approach
• Strengths-
• Good links between
childhood experiences
and adult behaviours
• Freud offers reasons for
unusual psychological
conditions
• Still in use and popular
therapies today
• Limitations-
• Methods and ideas not
testable and therefore
unscientific
• Case studies are not
applicable to other people
• Ideas on infants
displaying sexual urges
are highly criticised
• The effect of therapy is
questioned as a large
number of sufferers not
taking therapy also
recover

9. •
Founded by JB Watson in 1915 the behaviourist approach studies observed behavioural
responses of humans and animals. The behaviourist approach believes we learn to behave in
response to our environment, either by stimulus-response association, or as a result of
reinforcement. Important contributors to the behaviourist approach are Ivan Pavlov, with his
theory of classical conditioning, and BF Skinner, and his work into operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning concerns learning by association. Operant conditioning concerns the use of
environmental reinforcers in its explanation of why we learn to behave as we do. Classical
conditioning emphasises conditioning, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation,
stimulus discrimination, and reinforcement in the learning process. Operant conditioning tells us
that the type of reinforcer encountered by the organism can influence this process of
reinforcement. Reward, or positive reinforcement tends to encourage the repetition of a learned
behaviour. Avoidance of unpleasant consequence, or negative reinforcement, tends to
discourage the repetition of a discomforting behaviour. Classical conditioning has been applied
regards behaviour shaping and to behaviour therapies, such as systematic desensitisation,
implosion therapy, and aversion therapy. Operant conditioning has been applied to
behaviour modification regimes such as the token economy and programmed learning.
Reinforcement techniques like fixed ratio and fixed interval schedules have been found to be of
benefit in new learning situations. Behaviourist ideas, especially those of BF Skinner, have been
particularly influential to education. However, the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of higher-
level species, such as human beings, are nowadays thought far more sophisticated than the
behaviourist approach originally thought.

10. Behaviourist Approach
• Strengths-
• Rigorous and experimental
methods gives credibility as a
science
• Strong arguments for nurture
side of debate
• Practical applications and
uses- eg rewards in education
• Limitations-
• Ignore mental processes
involved in learning- see it as
response only
• Rejects some biological factors
involved in behaviour
• Conditioning principles do not
account for spontaneous
behaviour
• Apply laws of learning to
humans from animal
experiments.
• Ethical issues in treatment of
animals

11. • The cognitive approach studies our information processes of perception, attention, language,
memory, and thinking, and how they influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviours. It considers
each, and their contribution to our ability to operate successfully in our world. The cognitive
approach rightfully views us as active processors of information from our outside world. We are
not passive learners, as behaviourism would have us believe. This is emphasised in the
mediational nature of our information processes as illustrated by the computer analogy. Individual
cognitions further explore this fact. Perception for example is understood from the point of view of
our senses working in tandem with an innate ability called gestalten, and our
previous past experience of stimuli in our world. It is previous past experience that makes the
difference between one person's perception and another's. What is meaningful to you also
influences another crucial information process, memory, and as a result your ability, or otherwise,
to think and problem solve. All our information processes, while studied individually, work
collectively as we operate in and through our environment. The cognitive approach has had a
huge influence over the last 30 years, and continues to do so. It has been applied to the world of
advertising, marketing, public relations, work, society, politics etc. However, anything the
cognitive approach discovers about our cognitions, and their influence on our behaviours has to
be inferred. This is because cognitions are hypothetical constructs. This has led to criticisms,
such as a lack of ecological validity, being levied at the approach. It also ignores biological and
social factors, and their interaction of both, as further reasons behind why we think, feel, and
behave as we do.

12. Cognitive Approach
• Strengths-
• Focuses on the actual
internal processes
• Scientific, experimental
methods
• Models like working
memory have been
effectively used to explain
mental processes
• Limitations-
• Over simplify working of
the brain- ignore the
complexities
• Humans are viewed as
machines, like
computers- ignores
individuality
• Theories based on
performance of artificial
tasks in a lab…EV

13. • The humanistic approach, aka Third Force psychology, explains us as individuals in terms of our
subjective interpretation of past experience. Or life as it has affected our personality. It is an
approach in psychology that is interested in what it means to be human. It came about as a
reaction to the behaviourist approach, and the psychoanalytic approach. It believes we have an
inbuilt biological drive that motivates us towards personal growth, and the healthy psychological
state of self-actualisation. It emphasises the importance of ‘self’, which is who we think we are as
a person. The self is your personality. Influential figures in the development of the approach
include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow gave the humanistic approach his theory of
self-actualisation as illustrated by his hierarchy of needs. Rogers extended Maslow’s work into
the field of humanistic person-centred psychotherapy with his emphasis on empathy;
unconditional positive regard and genuineness. Creating these conditions for growth in therapy
facilitate an environment that helps the client become a more fully functioning person. This
application of theory in clinical practice moves the person from incongruence to congruence, or
from a poor perceived self to a more psychologically healthy ideal self. The ultimate in personal
growth is the fully functioning person who has achieved self-actualisation. The notion of self-
actualisation lacks empirical support, but correlations have been generated to help validate the
effectiveness of the approach in practice. The humanistic approach has had a global impact
within and outwith psychology, especially in the areas of humanistic psychotherapy and person
centred counselling. Its immense popularity with clients would appear to suggest that they do not
view the approaches lack of scientific support as problematic!

14. Humanism
• Strengths-
• The person is an active
agent- they control their
own destiny
• Personal responsibility-
we have free will to
change our selves
• Uniqueness is valued
• PCT is used by many
therapists today
• Limitations-
• Humanistic theories are
hard to test and therefore
unscientific
• In rejecting a scientific
method the theories
therefore lack empirical
evidential support
• Over simplify persons
ability to change- ignore
cultural boundaries
• It is difficult to study
individual emotions and
consciousness

15. Plenary
• Which are you?
• Why?