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BELIEFS IN SOCIETY: SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES
A. DEFINITION OF RELIGION
1. WEBER (1905) – ‘Belief if a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained
scientifically’ (Substantive Defn)
2. YINGER (1970) & DURKHEIM (1915) – Both defn religion in terms of it’s functions, for Durheim it’s
contribution to social integration and for Yinger answering ‘ultimate questions’ such as the meaning of life.
(Functional Defn)
B. FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION/PERSPECTIVES
FUNCTIONALISTS
1. MALINOWSKI (1954)
Studied Trobriand Islands, looked at fishing, when fishing within the lagoon, it was safe, but if went out to
sea, there was sometimes a catch, sometimes not. Also at sea, there was a danger of loss of life. Religion
was used in these times of crisis to explain reasons behind a crisis – it reinforces Myth and Magic. He
sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity.
HOWEVER….
He doesn’t see it as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he see religious worship as a worship of society
itself. He identifies specific areas of social life that religion is concerned with, and to which it is
addressed. These are situations of emotional stress that threaten social solidarity. Religion is used in
times of crisis, not safe periods.
Death is socially destructive as it removes a member from society.
At funeral ceremony, the social group unites to support the bereaved.
This expression of social solidarity reintegrates society.
Malinowski’s contribution is his argument that religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations
of emotional stress that threaten social stability of society.
Criticisms of Malinowski
1. Exaggerates the importance of religious rituals in helping people to cope with situations of stress and
uncertainty
2. A particular function or effect that religion sometimes has, has been mistaken for a feature of religion in
general.
2. PARSONS (1967)
Says Religion has shaped our norms and values. Beliefs provide guidelines for human action and
standards against which people’s conduct can be evaluated - a blue print for behaviour
In Christian society, Ten Commandments demonstrate how social norms can be integrated by religious
beliefs. Religion helps provide consensus which Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability.
Religion also helps deal with crisis , so he agrees with Malinowski that religion is addressed to particular
problems that occur in all societies.
Problems that disrupt society fall into 2 categories
1. Individuals are hit by events they cannot forsee e.g. death
2. The unknown or uncontrollable factors that hinder endeavours
He says religion gives meaning to life . It Answers man’s questions about himself and the world he lives
in. Helps make sense of experiences. Gives meaning to events that people do not expect or feel ought
not to happen.

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3. DURKHEIM (1915)
‘In a word, anything can be sacred’
Based work on Aborigines in Australia. Each clan had a ‘totem.’ This totem used as a way of worshipping
their society, togetherness, something abstract. All societies divide the world into sacred or profane.
Social life is impossible without shard values and normal beliefs=collective conscience. Without it, no social
control, order, solidarity or co-operation. Religion reinforces collective conscience. Worship of society
strengthens values and beliefs that form the basis of social life. Durkheim emphasised importance of
collective worship. Group express common values and beliefs together. Express, communicate and
understand moral bonds that unite them. Belief in gods or spirits originates in ancestral spirits of dead
relatives. Worship of God is really of ancestors’ souls. Souls represent presence of social values and so, in
worshipping souls; they are again worshipping social group or society.
Criticisms of Durkheim
1. He only studied small number of Aboriginal groups (untypical) – misleading to generalise about
Aborigines, let alone religion as a whole based upon this.
2. Most agree with promotion of social solidarity, but disagree that it is worship of society.
3. Durkheim’s views are more appropriate for small, non-literate, mono-cultural societies, with
close integration, where social institutions merge.
4. His views less relevant to modern societies, which have many subcultures and ethnic groups.
4. BELLAH (1970)
Civil Religion – Looked at how religion unified America (a multi faith society) – sacred qualities were attach
to Americanism (the American wy of life). There is loyalty to America as a nation state and loyalty to
Americanism includes not only a belief in Americanism but a belief in God too. There are various symbols
and rituals which confirm belief in Americanism – e.g. singing the national anthem, saluting the flag,
pledging the allegiance.
MARXISTS
Religion comes from the oppressed, but benefits those at the top’
Lenin: “Religion is a kind of spiritual gin in which the slaves of capital drown their human shape and their
claims to any decent life.”
Marx: (1844) “ Religion is the opium of the people.”
Religion dulls the pain caused by oppression. It does nothing to solve the problem; it is a bad attempt to
make life more bearable. Salvation from bondage and misery by promised after-life. Promises people will
be rewarded for their virtue. Offers hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth . Often
justifies social order and a persons place within it . Helps people at the bottom accept their situation.
Prevents any form of revolt, as it threatens eternal damnation, good for social control
Helps produce false consciousness. Divertspeople’sattentionawayfrom real source of oppressionand keeps
rulingclass in power
Criticisms of Marxist Theory
Turner argues there is no single, dominant ideology; there is a different ideology for each class
NEO- MARXISTS
Neo-Marxists have also started to take a fresh look at the role of religion in society, and the traditional
approach has been considerably modified right at the centre of traditional Marxism - the base -
superstructure distinction.
1. ANTONIO GRAMSCI (1971) is perhaps the most important theorist to have presented the relative
autonomy argument. For him, beliefs were no less real or important than economic forces (like Weber).
Gramsci argued that action must be guided by theoretical ideas. Gramsci noted the ideological control that

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the church exercised over Italians, this ideological central he termed 'hegemony'. Although aware that at
the time he was writing that the church was supporting ruling class interests he did not believe this to be
inevitable. He argued that religious beliefs and practices could develop which would support and guide
popular challenges to the dominant class.
2. OTTO MADURO (1982) - Religion and Social conflicts (1982) also argues for the relative autonomy of
religion.
Religion is not necessarily a functional, reproductive or conservative factor in society: It often is one of the
main (and sometimes the only) available channels to bring about a social revolution.
Maduro argues that in a situation where there is no other outlet for grievances, such as Latin America, the
clergy become a variety of Gramsci's proletarian intellectuals and provide guidance for the oppressed in
their struggle with dominant groups.
Criticisms of Neo-Marxist
· Little evidence to show WC were ever especially religious.
· Religion can act for change (radical/political). But theory still credits mass of population with little
independent action.
Religion acts as a tool of social control, maintaining the existing systemof exploitation and reinforcing the
existing stratification order.
Religion DOES provides adequate answers to the basic questions posed above.
3. DWIGHT BILLINGS (1990)
Compared 2 communities – Textile workers and Coalminers in Kentucky during the 1920s & 1930s. Both
working class evangelicalprotestants. Billings saw Hegemony and the role of religion as essential to the
militancy. Miners had ‘organic intellectuals’ as leaders many were lay preachers, Miners used independent
churches to organise meetings and the church kept support and morale high with the miners. Religion
played a prominent oppositional role for the miners.
MAX WEBBER
Says Religion can lead to social change . He Analyses relationships between religion and development of
capitalism. Whereas Marx believes change is brought about by structural causes (technology, distribution
of wealth etc), Weber believes that ideas can be result and cause of change. Process of social change a
result of relationship between religion and capitalism: Protestant Ethic (caused by attempts to secure
religious salvation) Certain religious beliefs and practices played crucial role in development of capitalism
Few thinkers took this perspective seriously before Weber: Religion radical force for social change rather
than conservative force.
Protestant Work Ethic
CALVIN: People pre-chosen as to whether they go to heaven or not. It was believed by followers of Calvin
that one could not do good works or perform acts of faith to assure your place in heaven. You were
either among the "elect" (in which case you were in) or you were not. However, wealth was taken as a sign
(by you and your neighbours) that you were one of the God's elect, thereby providing encouragement for
people to acquire wealth. The protestant ethic therefore provided religious sanctions that fostered a spirit
of rigorous discipline, encouraging men to apply themselves rationally to acquire wealth. Religion allowed
capitalismto develop, as it doesn’t discourage it Weber doesn’t think Protestantism caused capitalism.
But he links spirit of capitalism – protestant work ethic - hard work receives religious justification in the
form of protestant ethic.
He also looks at who may join churches and how they develop. He says Churches don’t usually represent
the poor, underprivileged. Sects appeal more to poorer groups. Charismatic people begin to tear away into
sectarian from churches

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FEMINISTS
1. SIMONE DE-BEVOUIR (the 2nd Sex 1953)
Said religion was used by men to oppress women and control them. She was a Marxist feminist and like
Marx felt that religion was about control of a persecuted group (except for her it was women), religion
created hope, false belief, it justified the social order despite it’s inequality. Religion provided hope of a
sexless heaven and suggested that suffering on earth would be rewarded in heaven.
2. MARY DALY (1973)
Says Christianity acts as an ideological force in several different ways:
a. through religious images - man is better, God is the father, women are created from man’s body, all the
apostles are men, etc
b. religious teachings - e.g. wedding vows women ‘love, honour and OBEY’, in St. Paul’s letter to the
Ephesians, it said ‘wives submit to your husbands as to the lord, for a husband has authority over his wife.’
c. Church hierarchy - women seem to be excluded from top positions. In 1992 the Church of England
allowed women priests. But in the Catholic church women can’t be priests, and in the COE women can’t
be bishops.
3. NAWAL EL SAADAWI (1980)
Beliefs that patriarchy influences religion and reshape it – e.g. men reinterpreted religious beliefs’ in a way
that suited them and so now religion contributes to women’s oppression. Monotheism has legitimised
the power of men over women.
4. LINDA WOODHEAD (2002)
Not ALL religion is patriarchal and oppresses women. She goes further to say there are ‘religious forms of
feminism’ where women use religion to gain freedom and respect. Eg. Some Muslim women wear
hijab/veil, she beliefs this enables them to be in society without losing their culture or history.
Women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the private sphere of home and family.
They can use religion to increase their power and influence, they also gain support and share experiences
through religion.
C. RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE/NRMS
NIEBUHR (1929)
Says that sects that survive over a long period of time will become denominations because a bureaucratic
and hierarchical structure will become necessary for the church to survive once the charismatic leader
dies/leaves. Without this structure the sect would die too. Once they become more organised they lose
their deviant , rejecting edge. Sects don’t ten to survive as sects for more than 1 generation, they evolve
into denominations, and become more accepted and seen as an off-shoot of an established church. They
tend to become more tolerant and tolerated, commitment levels
drop, and they even lose their claims of monopoly on the truth.
Criticisms of Niebuhr
Brian Wilson (1966) - says some sects do survive without becoming
denominations or becoming accepted and less committed - e.g.
J.Ws
2. STARK & BAINBRIDGE (1985) – 5 stage sect life cycle – it will cool
down and the original sect might die out, but schismwill cause
break away members of the sect to reject the world.

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3. BRYAN WILSON (1966) –
Conversionist sects are likely to grow and become denominations, whilst Adventist sects see the world as
corrupt and will not compromise or cool down
4. ROY WALLIS (1984)
Due to the development of a number of new religions in the 1970s, Roy Wallis categorised these as New
Religious movements and divided these new religions into 3 main groups based on their relationship
towards the outside world.
A World rejecting - sect characteristics (controlling, high levels of commitment, rejection of outside world,
communal lifestyle)
B. World Accommodating - often off-shoots of an existing church or denomination, e.g. Pentecostalism,
these groups neither accept or reject the world they simply live in it. They seek to restore spiritual purity
to religion.
C. World Affirming - (more cult like), often lack features associated with religion, but these groups often
look to supernatural or spiritual powers. They accept the world as it is, and look to unlock spiritual
powers within the individual, they look for success. There is often little social control (by the group) over its
members/customers
Wallis realised that no religious group conformed exactly to his descriptions and some group contained
elements of all 3 different categories.
Criticism of Wallis
1. Beck ford - Wallis’s categories are difficult to apply, it’s not clear whether it’s the teachings of the
movement or it’s outlook and beliefs of individuals that are important. Also he’s against the term ‘World
Rejecting’ as he says no group can reject the world altogether.
2. Wallis doesn’t fully account for the diversity of views that exist within a sect or cult.
5. STARK & BAINBRIDGE
2 kinds of new religions – Sects and Cults:
a. SECTS – break away groups from existing organisations, usually churches because they disagree over
doctrine.
b. CULTS – New religions, or new to that particular society (imported from another area of the world)
Cults break down into two types –
a. AUDIENCE CULTS – Poorly organized, limited commitment required or interaction between members, e.g.
Astrology
b. CLIENT CULTS – Relationship like consultant and client, a service is provided and contact exists, e.g,
Homeopathy, Spiritualism
D. SOCIAL GROUPS: AGE
1. DAVID VOAS & ALASDAIR CROCKETT (2005)
Give 3 reasons why older people appear more religious than younger people:
a) The ‘Ageing Effect’ - People become more religious as they age. Life experiences e.g. having
children, or getting older might encourage them to return to religion.
b) The ‘Period Effect’ those born in a particular period (time) are more likely to be religious than those
born at another time period.
c) The ‘Generation Effect’ or ‘Progressive decline’ each generation is less religious than the previous one.
Voas & Crockett say each generation are half as religious as their parents!

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E. SOCIAL GROUPS: GENDER
1. ALAN MILLER & JOHN HOFFMAN (1995)
a) Differential Socialisation – women are taught to be more submissive, passive, obedient and caring than
men, these characteristics are associated with being more religious and valued by religion.
b) Structural Location – women take part in religion because of their social roles. Men are more likely to
be the full time breadwinner (instrumental role), women are more likely to be housewives/work
part-time and raise children. This gives them more time for church related activities. If they do not
have paid jobs they may need a role that provides a sense of personal identity and religion can fulfil this.
Finally taking children to church can be an extension of the ‘mother role’ – women tend to be the
primary carers.
c) Risk – women tend to be risk-averse, where as men tend to be risk-takers. Not going to church can be
risky as it could lead to failure to enter heaven.
2. STEVE BRUCE (1996)
women tend to be less goal-orientated, more co-operative and less domineering (these are traits of
femininity). These attributes fit well with religion and spirituality. Bruce says the world falls between the
a. Public Sphere (paid work and politics)
b. Private Sphere (home, family and personal life)
Women are more involved in the private sphere than men, they can remain within religion through the
private domain (especially New Age Movements / Cults)
a) Working Class women tend to continue to support religions which believe in an all powerful God and in
which they are quite passive.
b) Middle Class women have more experience of controlling their lives and are more attracted to New Age
groups in which individuals can develop their own spirituality.
3. HEELAS & WOODHEAD (Kendal Project) (2000)
80% of attendees to NRMs were women
1. These sorts of movements celebrate nature and involve cults of healing (where women have higher
status)
2. They agree with Bruce and Davie that womens caring and child rearing experiences (private sphere)
makes them more inclined to new age movements. ‘Where men wish to achieve, women wish to feel’.
4. DR KRISITN AUNE (2010)
a) young women were put off by the traditional values.
b) women found it difficult to make time for church - juggling work and family
"In short, women are abandoning the church. "Young women tend to express egalitarian values and dislike
the traditionalism and hierarchies they imagine are integral to the church." With the pressures women
face, churches must adapt to make themselves more accessible."
5. MARTA TRZEBIATOWSKA - Why are Women more Religious than Men? (2012)
“the gender gap is not the result of biology but is rather the consequence of important social differences
—responsibility for managing birth, child-rearing and death, for example, and attitudes to the body, illness
and health — over-lapping and reinforcing each other. In the West, the gender gap is exaggerated because
the social changes that undermined the plausibility of religion bore most heavily on men first. Where the
lives of men and women become more similar, and where religious indifference grows, the gender gap
gradually disappears.”

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F. SOCIAL GROUPS: ETHNICITY
1. JOHN BIRD
He identifies 5 reasons why ethnic minority groups are more religious:
a) Many members of ethnic minority groups originate in societies that have high levels of religiosity such as
Pakistan and the Caribbean.
b) Belonging to a minority ethnic group within a society means that religion can be an important basis for a
sense of community and solidarity. It can give members a point of contact, sense of identity and
introduce them to potential marriage partners.
c) Minority groups see religion as a way of maintaining cultural identify in terms of traditions, e.g. Food,
language, art and music.
d) Socialisation can lead to strong pressure on children to maintain religious commitment (especially
among Asian groups)
e) Religious beliefs may be a way to cope with oppression.
2. STEVE BRUCE (1995)
Accepts that ethnic minorities are more religious than whites in modern society, but believes religiosity is
more an expression of community than religious commitment. Religion is:
a. Cultural Defence – using religion to protect identity in a hostile environment
b. Cultural Transition – religion is used to cope with the upheaval of migration
Bruce believes that over time the secular nature of British society will erode the importance of religion for
ethnic minorities.
Evaluation:
Modood supports this. He found that younger Chinese, white and Afro Caribbean people were
considerable less religious than their parents. He found that in some groups there was no decline
between generations – particularly Muslims.
3. KEN PRYCE (1979)
Studied the African Caribbean community in Bristol. The study shows cultural defence and cultural
transition have been important.
He argues that Pentecostalism is a highly important adaptive ‘religion of the oppressed’ that provided
migrants with values appropriate to the new world in which they found themselves.
Pentecostalismhelped African Caribbean's to adapt to British society, playing a kind of ‘Protestant ethic’
role in helping it members success be encouraging self reliance and thrift.
It gave people mutual support and hope of improving their situation.
4. TARIQ MODOOD
a. Differences in the importance attached to religion. Only 11% of white members of the C of E saw
religion as very important in their lives, compared to 71% of Caribbean members of new Protestant
churches, and 43% of Hindus and 74% of Muslims.
b. For Asians religion was an important aspect of their identity and status, but this wasn’t the case for
Caribbean’s. He described the role of religion in Asians peoples life, he found that religion related to
responsibility, prayer was a duty, it was an expectation of parents that their children would follow religion
into adulthood, conform and marry a Muslim. The influence of religion was strong. For Caribbean’s
religion was about happiness and joy, about personal development, developing a moral sense, but it was
voluntary. Children should decide for themselves on their religious path. The church was also about
socialisation. Modood went onto look at the influence of religion over 2nd and 3rd generation immigrants,
finding that religion began to loose some of it’s significance during the 2nd generation. It created conflict

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within the family, and 2nd generation tried to be more flexible in the observation of their faith. Modood
found that his distinction between Asian and Caribbean attitudes was less obvious in 2nd generation
off-spring.
5. JOHAL (1998)
Also looked at 2nd and 3rd generation immigrants. He found that religious pluralism wasn’t really
tolerated in GB, leading these 2nd/3rd generations to use a code-switching between Britishness and
Asianess given the situation.
G. FUNDAMENTALISM & POSTMODERNITY
1. GIDDENS (1990)
“Fundamentalists are traditionalists who seek to return to the basics of fundamentals of their faith.”
Choice, Uncertainty and Risk – 3 features of today’s late modern society, fundamentalism is rigid, dogmatic
and certain. Gives faith based answers. People attracted to fundamentalism want evidence from sacred
texts, rather than choice and constantly trying to justify their views to others.
2. BAUMAN (1992)
Fundamentalism is a response to PoMo – too much freedom, choice, uncertainty and risk, all undermining
old certainties. Fundamentalists don’t embrace these new freedoms.
3. CASTELLS (1998)
Says there are 2 approaches to PoMO
a. Resistant identity – Defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat to fundamentalism.
b. Project Identity – Forward-looking people who engage with new social movemenrs, like
environmentalism, feminism etc.
4. BRUCE (2007)
Fundamentalism the result of idea that globalisation is threatening religious traditions.
Monotheist religions, more likely to produce fundamentalist movements, as these are based on the idea
that God’s word is revealed through a single text, e.g. Bible, Qur’an, these books give specific rules for
believers to follow. Polytheistic religions tend not to have a single text.
a. In West – Fundamentalism is a reaction to changes taking place in society e.g. diversity, choice, gender
equality
b. In the 3rd World - Fundamentalism is a reaction to changes being thrust upon a society from outside,
where Western values are imposed.
H. SECULARISATION: CLASSIC ARGUMENT/THEORISTS
1. EMILE DURKHEIM
Durkheim acknowledge that society was become secularised, he said it was happening over two time
periods, that it had been happening over a millennium and that it had become accelerated in recent times.
He saw that secularisation meant the loss of socialisation of key norms and values. He said that the
church had lost it’s power and influence (he contrasted the modern church to the Roman Catholic Church),
it was unable to prevent sacrilege and it’s doctrines were being rejected. Durkheim acknowledged that
the growth of science was in part the cause of secularisation . But rather than see the growth in science
lead to eventual destruction of religion, Durkheim believed that religion would always be of importance
and eventually would be seen as an important area again, working in conjunction with science and
providing norms and values, socialisation and spiritual fulfillment.

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2. KARL MARX
Society would eventually be communist and there will be no class. Religion would no longer be needed and
therefore secularisation would be inevitable
3. COMTE
Believed there were 3 stages of human history 1. Theological (where religion is dominant),
2. Metaphysical (where philosophy is important) 3. Positive (where science and rational thinking is
important). Through social evolution, Comte predicated that secularisation was inevitable.
H. SECULARISATION: DISAPPEARANCE THESIS
1. WEBER (1905)
Says that modern society has become DISENCHANTED with religion, I.e. that society no longer needs
mystery and magic, even that the idea of the supernatural has almost gone from society. Instead we are
obsessed with rational action (I.e. explained theory, and attempt to discover ‘the truth’), calculation and
logic have taken over. The role and function of religion has been removed. This enables science and
technology to thrive.
2. STEVE BRUCE (1988)
A. church has lost it’s functions and become ‘privatised’, this means it’s become closer to the private
sphere and family. It’s become a matter of personal choice and so religious institutions have lost their
influence over wider society. Even religious symbols have lost their meaning (desacrilisation). Where
religion does still have significance it has to conform to the requirements of a secular state e.g. Teachers on
faith schools must hold qualifications recognised by the state. Societalisation means social life has become
more fragmented and is no longer locally based around communities, like it used to be.
B. ‘Religious Pluralism’ - in these societies religion is no longer a central feature of society, the ‘Strong
Religion’ which once dominated people’s life's declines and is replaced by ‘Weak Religion’ – this involves
tolerance of different beliefs and has limited influence over people’s lives. Fragmented and Pluralistic
societies such as the UK do NOT lend themselves to having a religion that exercises strong influence.
c. Cultural Defence – Where religion provides a focal point for the defence of national or ethnic identity.
Cultural Transition – Where religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups (e.g.
Migrants) – This function will not be necessary forever!
D. Technology – (and rationalisation) – we use science and technology to answer questions, not religion.
4. PETER BERGER (1969)
Berger looks at religious pluralism in society and how lead to choice. This is described as a ‘spiritual
supermarket’ where religions compete for ‘spiritual shoppers’. Religious diversity has created a plurality
of life worlds - meaning peoples perceptions of the world vary as there are different interpretations of
the truth. Berger says this creates a crisis of credibility for religion, there are so many religions to choose
from – which is right? People question them all.
5. PETER BRIERLEY ( Religious Trends, 2000)
Did various studies assessing religiosity (which contributes to the secularisation debate). He said that
those who belonged to the religious community were all those who identified with a church, even if they
attended irregularly, or were just baptised (but not attended). In 2000 he attempted to examine
religious trends. He said the Christian population in England was 64%, and the total religious percentage
for the entire population was 71% (based on his definition above). Brierley went onto examine the % of

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population actually attending church. He examined the years 1851 - 1998. In 1851 24% of the
population were attending church, compared to 7.5% in 1998. Brierley study also showed that church
attendance figures for 1998 showed that attendance figures were rising for mid week services whereas
Sunday services were falling. Brierley also excepts that there is an ‘age bias’ in terms of those attending
and that Sunday school figures are also in decline.
6. HEELAS & WOODHEAD: Kendal Project (2000)
2 year study of Kendall (Cumbria) to see how far traditional religion had declined and how far new
spirituality had grown and compensated for it.
The found 2 groups:
 The Congregational Domain (traditional Christianity)
 The Holistic Milieu (Spirituality and the New Age)
In 2000, 7.9% of the population attended church and 1.6% took part in the activities of the holistic milieu.
But traditional churches were losing support, evangelical churches were maintaining but the holistic milieu
was growing. They put this down to today's culture – people don’t like being told what to do, they like
choice. Churches tend to demand obedience and discipline. The evangelical church including spiritual
healing. The found the winners in the spiritual market place, were those who appealed to personal
experience and fulfilment, rather than commands. Despite the small growth of the Holistic Milieu, they
conclude secularisation is occurring, there is a downturn in church numbers and the growth in the holistic
milieu is too small to compensate. It has simply undermined the basis of traditional religion.
I. SECULARISATION:DIFFERENTIATION THESIS
1. GRACE DAVIE: Believing without Belonging
a. Religion isn't declining, just changing, it’s becoming more privatised, e.g. The don’t go to church because
they feel they don’t have too, attendance is a matter of personal choice, not obligation – we have believing
without belonging. She rejects the view that religion will simply be replaced by science.
b. ‘Vicarious religion’ (religion performed by an active minority but on behalf of a much larger number)
e.g. if you or I approached the clergy for a funeral of a family member, and that funeral was denied, we
would feel somehow that the church had not done what it was there to do.
Criticisms of Davie
Voas & Crockett say Davie has overlooked belief. Not only is attendance down, but there is reduced
belief also.
Bruce - If people are not investing effort in attending then this represents a lack of commitment and a
decline in strength of belief
2. DANIELLE HERVIEU-LEGER – (2000, 2006)
Cultural Amnesia - Religion isn’t being handed down throught the family (the generations) like it once was.
Parents don’t know themselves and they let their children decide for themselves. Young people are
ignorant of religious tradition and have no religious identity.
Spiritual Shopping – Agrees with Davie (Believing without belonging). Religion hasn’t disappeared, just
consumerism’ has taken over. She says this lack of identity means that many of us have become spiritual
shoppers, religion has become individualised. She says two new types of religions are emerging:
a. Pilgrims – Follow an individual path on a search of self discovery (e.g. Try New Age beliefs)
b. Converts – Join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging, usually a shared ethnic
background. These groups recreate a sense of community

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3. PETER BERGER (1999)
Changed his view – and now argues that diversity and choice actually stimulate interest and participation in
religion, e.g. the growth of the New Christian Right in the USA
4. DAVID LYON - Jesus In Disneyland (2000)
Religion no longer defines us a nation but can as an individual, people have lots of choice now.
We haven’t abandoned religion altogether, we’ve just made choices about which elements they find useful,
e.g. They might go to different churches, or use different religions for different things.
He disagrees with Weber’s idea that rationalisation and disenchantment of the world have had an
impact, he thinks there has been re-enchantment over the past 40 years. He uses the example of
Disneyland and the Harvest Day Crusade held there - its become part of our modern fantasy world and
the growth of non-traditional movements. (religious symbols have been relocated), this could lead to
de-institutionalisation.
J. SECULARISATION IN AMERICA
1. BRYAN WILSON (1962)
Found 45% of Americans attended church on Sundays, but it was more an American way of life rather than
deeply held religious believes (he’s writing before Davie, but this is an example of belonging without
believing).
2. HADAWAY et al (1993)
Looked at church attendance in Ohio. He did head counts of people at church and then interviewed
people asking them about their church attendance. He found the level of attendance claimed by
interviewees was 83% higher than their actual attendance.
3. STEVE BRUCE (2002)
Says USA is becoming increasing secular, the evidence he uses is:
a. Decline in church attendance – he says self reported attendance is around 40% but this masks the real
lower rate of attendance
b. Religion in America has remained popular by becoming less religious (more like a therapy) – he calls this
secularisation from within.
c. Religious Diversity – there is no religious certainty, churchgoers can no longer be sure of their views.
4. STARK & BAINBRIDGE
Religion thrives in USA because there has never been a monopoly, rather a great variety of denominations
to choose from. This leads to a healthy religious market place where religions grow and decline depending
on demand.
5. HADDEN AND SHUPE (1998)
Growth in Televangelism in USA was due to demand
K. SECULARISATION WORLD WIDE (THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES)
1. STARK & BAINBRIDGE: Religious Compensators (1985)
Secularisation theory is too Eurocentric, it focuses on decline in Europe but fails to explain the strength of
religion in America and elsewhere.
It gives a distorted view of the past, there was NO ‘golden age’ .
They say people are naturally religious. Religion meets their human needs. Demand for religion will

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remain constant, though the types of religion may vary.
Religion is attractive because it provides us with compensators – when real rewards are scarce, religion
compensates by promising us supernatural ones.
2. NORRIS & INGLEHART: Existential Security Theory (2004)
The reason for variations of religiosity across society is not because of different degrees of religious choice,
but Existential Security. This means the belief that survival is secure enough that it can be taken for
granted. Societies which have security have low need for religion and vice versa.
 Poor societies – where there are life threatening risks, e.g. Famine, disease etc have high levels of
insecurity and high religiosity. Poor people who live in rich societies also follow the same pattern.
 Rich societies - where people have a high standard of living, have less risk and lower levels of
religiosity.
They explain religiosity in America on the grounds that it is the most unequal of rich societies, with an
inadequate welfare safety net.
L. BELIEF SYSTEMS
1. POLANYI (1958)
suggested that a belief system was made up of three factors. Science can be viewed as fitting this model.
a) A circulatory of beliefs – each idea within the belief system is explained in relation to others. If one is
challenged or it fails it is defended by reference to another, to avoid changing the belief system.
b) Supporting explanations are given for difficult situations – if any evidence is shown to contradict the
belief there will be a reason to explain it.
c) No alternative belief systems can be tolerated – Belief systems reject alternative worldviews by
refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumptions (e.g. Creationism rejects outright the
evolutionists) a sweeping rejection of religion could be seen as an example of this.
2. KARL POPPER (1959) The fabrication of facts.
science is an ‘Open belief’ system
Every scientists theories are open to scrutiny, criticismand testing by others
Science is governed by the principle of falsification (if proven false a theory will be disregarded) E.g. As
new measuring instruments are invented, new observations are possible and new ‘facts’ can be
manufactured as old ideas are proved false.
3. MERTON (1973)
Takes a historical look at how science developed (impact of Protestant Reformation)
Protestants attracted by fact science led to inventions which improved social welfare.
Merton said there were 4 norms – he called CUDOS
a) Communism – Scientific knowledge si not private property. Scientists must share it with the scientific
community (publish findings) = knowledge grows
b) Universalism – The truth or falsity of the knowledge is judge by objective criteria.
c) Disinterestedness – Scientists are committed to discovering objective knowledge/truth, it’s judged and
any fraud/bias would be exposed
d) Organised Scepticism– No knowledge claimis regarded as ‘sacred’ , every idea is open to questioning
and objective investigation.

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4. THOMAS KUHN (1970)
Science is based on shared assumptions = paradigms
(paradigm - a set of ideas, a theoretical framework, a theoretical model of how society or nature works.
Almost all academic or scientific disciplines operate within a particular paradigm, e.gs of major
paradigms Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity in physics, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in biology.
Examples of competing paradigms would be Marxism and structural functionalism in sociology)
• Paradigm tell scientists what problems to study, methodology, what to look for, hypothesis
• Scientific education and training = a process of being socialised into the truth of a paradigm, usually a
successful career depends upon working within that paradigm
• Challenging the fundamental principles of the paradigm = scientific ridicule