1.
SOCIAL
GROUPS &
RELIGIOUS
PARTICPATION

2.
Learning Outcomes
• Examine the links between minority ethnic groups
and religion and why religiosity appears to be higher
in minority groups
• Examine the extent to which older people are more
religious than younger people and the reasons for
this
• Examine the evidence and explanations for why in
general, women are more religious than men

3.
Something to think about…
What is Ethnicity?
Are Ethnic Minority Groups
more or less likely to
participate in religion? Why?

4.
Ethnic Minority Groups and Religion
Arrange the table
according to what
you think is correct.

5.
Ethnic Minority Groups and Religion
Ethnic Differences in Religious Affiliation
% rating religion as
important.
% likely to attend weekly
worship.
White Anglicans 11 9
White Catholics 32 29
Hindus 43 43
African Caribbean
Protestants
81 57
Muslims 74 62

6.
Ethnic Minority Groups and Religion
Ethnic Differences in Religious Affiliation
% rating religion
as important.
% likely to attend
weekly worship.
White Anglicans 11 9
White Catholics 32 29
Hindus 43 43
African Caribbean
Protestants
81 57
Muslims 74 62
1) What are
the patterns
we can see
here?
2) Why do you
think this
might be?

7.
Statistics – Religious Differences
Brierly (2013):
Black people twice as likely to attend church as whites
Muslims, Hindus & black Christians more likely than white
Christians to see religion as important & attend place of
worship every week
Modood et al (1994):
 Found that second generation of minority ethnic groups
were less religious than first generation

8.
Reasons for Ethnic Differences
Most ethnic minorities are from poorer
countries with traditional cultures, both of
which produce higher levels of religious belief
and practice
This continues when they come to the UK with
their children
BUT others have proposed different reasons!

9.
Cultural Defence
Bruce (2003) argues that religion offers support and a
sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile
environment
Bird (1999) – religion can be a basis for community
solidarity, way to preserve culture & language & way
of coping with oppression in racist society
Example, African & Caribbean Christians were not
actively welcomed by white churches in UK so some
founded black churches (especially Pentecostal)
Brierly (2013)- increase in new churches in London
catering for specific languages/nationalities due to
immigration

10.
Cultural Transition
Religion can ease transition into
a new culture by providing
support and sense of
community for minority groups
Will Herberg (1955) points to
high levels of religious
participation for first-generation
immigrants in USA
Bruce sees same pattern
occurring in UK

11.
KEY STUDY:
Ken Pryce
(1979) Bristol,
UK
Studied African Caribbean
community and found evidence to
support cultural defence and cultural
transition
CULTURAL TRANSITION
Pentecostalism helped African
Caribbeans to adapt to British Society
by encouraging members to succeed
through self reliance and thrift
Gave the mutual support and hope of
improving situation
CULTURAL DEFENCE
Rastafarianism: different response!
Radically rejected wider society as
racist and exploitative.

12.
Practice Exam Question
Identify and briefly explain three
reasons why members of
minority ethnic groups may seem
to be more religious than
members of the majority
population. (9 Marks)

13.
Mark Scheme
One mark for each of three reasons identified, such as:
part of cultural transition
part of cultural defence
the majority population worship privately
they are more religious
resistant identity/fundamentalism
vicarious religion.
Two further marks for each of three satisfactory explanations, such as:
part of cultural transition: some members of minority ethnic groups may see active
religious participation as desirable in adapting to a new culture.
part of cultural defence: some minority ethnic groups may practise their religion actively as
a way of maintaining their previous culture.
the majority population worship privately: changes in the religious habits of the
majority population may mean that they practise their religion in a less visible and more
private manner, thus it may seem that minority ethnic groups are more
actively religious.
they are more religious: religion is an inherent and permanent feature of their
culture and socialisation.

14.
Exam Question 2
Assess the view that, for minority
ethnic groups, the practice of
religion and membership of
religious groups is mainly a form of
cultural defence. (33 marks)

15.
Age and Religion

16.
Age & Religiosity
Under 15
15-19
20-29
30-44
45-64
65 and over
Put the age groups in an order to
represent religiosity today.
Explain reasons for each of your
decisions.
Which group would be the most
religious?

17.
Age & Religiosity: Sunday Church
Attendance (thousands) (Brierley, 2015)
Age 1980 2015 2025*
(projected)
Under 15 1, 165 493 338
15-19 394 126 63
20-29 492 170 114
30-44 718 432 328
45-64 897 751 614
65 & over 810 957 1 070

18.
Age & Religion- Trends
The older a person is, the more
likely to attend religious services
Except- under 15- no choice!
Parents make them go
The drop off for 15-19 years olds
is steep
By 2025, half of all English
churches will have no-one under
20 attending!

19.
Reasons?
Voas &
Crocket
(2005)
propose 3
ideas
Aging Effect: People turn to religion as they
get older and approach death (more
concerned with spiritual life with age). Older
people more likely to go to church for this
reason.
Period/Cohort effect: people born in certain
time periods are more religious due to events
at the time (e.g. war, rapid social change).
Secularisation: As religion declines in
importance, each generation become less
religious than the one before.

20.
Supporting Evidence?
Evidence supports secularisation!
Arweck & Beckford (2013)- ‘virtual collapse of religious
socialisation after 1960s’.
In 1950s 1/3 of all 14 year olds attended Sunday Schools. These
have all disappeared.
Voas (2003) where parents share same faith= 50/50 chance they
will raise child to be church goer as adult. This is less for different
faith couples.
By 2025, 4/10 church goers will be aged 65 or older. Christians
likely to become small and old minority of UK population.

21.
Exam Practice: Item A
For some people, religion plays an important role in their lives; for others, its role is
minimal. One factor that seems to be important here is that of age, shown clearly by
statistics on religious belief and participation.
In 2005 the English Church Census showed that the number of people attending church
regularly had fallen from 5.4 million in 1979 to 3.2 million in 2005. Over the same period,
the average age churchgoers had increased from 37 to 45. The age group that decline the
least was 65 years. In fact, 12% of churchgoers were 75 or over. In contrast, the age
groups that had declined the most in this period were the 15-19 and 20-29 cohort. For
these age groups, the numbers had fallen by over 60%.
Although there figures apply only to the Christian Churches, other religious groups in the
UK also show significant differences between young and old in terms of religious belief,
though these differences are less marked among the Pakistani and Bangladeshi
communities.
Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the
reasons why the young seem less likely to believe and
participate in religion than older people. (18 marks)

22.
What kind of things might you
include?
Issues of elderly being closer to end of life's and impact of spirituality (Voas &
Crockett)
Elderly more effected by loneliness
Young more susceptible to secularisation (Voas & Crockett)
Young have ‘Cultural Amnesia’ not been socialised into religious stories
Young are exposed to so much spiritual choice ‘spiritual supermarket’ it can
make it difficult to stick with one, plus influenced by a range of other factors,
such as music, drugs etc, which may replace spirituality
Impact of private sphere – religion can happen at home, young people might
be more susceptible to this (e.g. Chat rooms)
Some young are strongly religious – Pakistanis and Bangladeshis

23.
Gender
&
Religion

24.
Who are more religious? Women or
Men? Why?
Can you offer any explanations
from what we have learned on
ethnicity?

25.
Table
1D
Religious beliefs, by gender
Percentage believing in:
God Sin Evil The
Devil
Life after
death
Women 84 72 756 42 57
Men 75 66 58 32 39
Source: Davie (1994)
Gender & Religiosity

26.
2005, 1.8 million women in England were churchgoers, as
against only 1.36 million men (Brierley, 2005)
55% of women vs 44% of men say they have a religion (British
Social Attitudes Survey, 2012)
Same survey found women 38% vs men 26% agreed with this
statement : “Religion is important to me”-
Women express greater interest in religion, have a stronger
personal commitment to it this applies to all ages and all
religious organisations and faiths (Miller & Hoffman, 1995)
34% women atheists/agnostics vs 54% men
Gender & Religiosity- Trends

27.
Gender & Religiosity
But why are women
more religious than
men?

28.
Miller & Hoffman
RISK, SOCIALISATION & ROLES
RISK- Men are less risk averse than women. Not being religious
might be risky (you might end up in Hell!). This may explain why
women are more religious than men.
SOCIALISATION – Women socialised to become passive, obedient &
caring. These qualities valued by most religions- therefore attracts
more women. Men who have these qualities likely to be attracted to
religion too.
ROLES – women more likely to work part-time or be carers so have
more scope to participate in religion. Role of caring for family
members also increases likelihood of participation.

29.
Davie (2013)
Women closer to birth and death
through child-bearing and caring for
elderly, sick and dying.
This brings them closer to the
ultimate questions about the
meaning of life that religion
answers

30.
Paid Work
Religion has become privatised- women are more
religious because lower levels of paid work (Bruce,
2011)
1960s- rise of women in paid work = ‘decline of female
piety’ (Callum Brown, 2009)
BUT religion still more attractive to women than men
because:
1. Affinity with caring- women do this in paid work &
at home
2. Churches have become feminised with men
withdrawing (Woodhead, 2001)

31.
The New Age
& Women
Women may be more attracted to
NAM because they are often
associated with nature (childbirth and
healing role)
Heelas & Woodhead found 80% of
participants in Holistic milieu in
Kendal were female
Women get higher status & sense of
self-worth
E.g. Bruce (2011) argues that child-
rearing makes women more
cooperative, less competitive – this
fits with New Age emphasis

32.
Focus on individual
sphere in NAM
Women in paid work may experience role
conflict between work & family roles
Woodhead (2001) says New Age beliefs appeal
to 3rd sphere: individual
Concerned with individual autonomy and
personal growth rather than role performance
Bypass conflict by creating new source of
identity based on ‘inner self’ rather than social
roles

33.
Class & Gender (Bruce, 2011)
New Age beliefs & practices emphasise personal autonomy,
control & self-development – attract middle class
Working class women may be more drawn to religions
which give them passive role e.g. all-powerful God OR
fatalistic ideas such as superstition, horoscopes, lucky
charms
Differences reflect class attitudes in other areas e.g.
education- m/c control own destiny vs w/c fatalistic
approach

34.
Women & Sects
Twice as many women in sects than men (Bruce, 1996)
WHY? Religious Market Theory
Stark & Bainbridge (1985)- sects offer compensators for organismic,
ethical and social deprivation. These more common amongst women.
Organismic: more likely to suffer ill health – seek healing
Ethical: more morally conservative – see world in moral decline
Social Deprivation: more likely to be poor

35.
Pentecostal
Gender
Paradox
Read p.54
What is the gender
paradox in
Pentecostalism?
What did Brusco’s
research find to
explain this paradox?
What did Ann Drogus
find in relation to
gender inequality?

36.
Recent Trends
Read the section on p.54 and then decide whether the following
statements are True or False?
1. Women’s participation in religion is declining in the UK today?
2. It is likely that women’s movement into paid work is partly
responsible for the decline in participation?
3. A very large amount of modern women are attracted to New Age
movements?
4. Traditional religions tend to be bound up with traditional gender
roles and this may be a reason why women are becoming less
religious?