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1. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Students with Blindness
or Low Vision
Chapter 9

2. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What is the History of Blindness
and Low Vision?
 Examples that illustrate accomplishments from early times:
Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey
 1800’s – Louis Braille developed a system for reading, writing, and
music using raised dots which could be “read” with one’s fingers
 Formal education for this population began in the U.S.; and the
American Printing House for the Blind was established.
 Early 1900’s saw emergence of public school programs.
 Advocacy movements stressed integration into all facets of society.
 1990’s – Professionals developed a common core curriculum and a
national agenda for students with blindness and low vision.

3. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What is the Legal Definition of
Blindness and Low Vision?
 Legal Blindness – vision of 20/200 or worse in the best
eye, with the best possible correction OR field of vision
limited to no more than 20 degrees (does not equate to
total blindness)
 Low vision – vision of 20/70 to 20/200 (also called partial
sight)
 Visual acuity – how sharp visual images are perceived
 Visual field – the scope of what one can see without
turning the head or moving one’s eyes

4. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What is the IDEA 04 Definition?
 Visual impairments including blindness are
defined as “vision that, even with correction,
adversely affects a child’s educational
performance. The term includes both partial
sight and blindness.”

5. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What Else Should I Know About the
Definitions of Blindness and Low Vision?
 Legal definitions emphasize visual acuity and residual vision.
 Teachers should be concerned with how well a student can use
residual vision and the impact on educational performance.
 Students with low vision may be able to use printed materials
(for example, large print books).
 Students with blindness may need to learn through means
other than printed materials.
 Individuals with the same visual acuity can function
differently in the same classroom.

6. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What is the Prevalence of
Blindness and Low Vision?
 Only about .04% of the school age population
have been identified with visual impairments.
 90% of all individuals with visual impairments
have some functional vision.

7. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are Some Causes of
Blindness and Low Vision?
 Optical defects
 Refraction – focusing light as it passes through different
components of the eye
 Refractive errors are more common and include:
 Astigmatism – focusing problems whether stimuli are near or far;
usually present at birth; may cause headaches, nausea or tired eyes
 Hyperopia – can see better at far distances than close up
 Myopia – can see better at close range than at distances

8. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
The Eye (Figure 9.1)

9. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are Some Causes of
Blindness and Low Vision?
(continued on the next slide)
 Ocular Motility Defects
 Nystagmus – eyes move abruptly in continual jerky types
of involuntary motion; may cause the student to tilt or turn
his/her head to try to see better
 Strabismus – any deviation in the alignment of the eyes as
a result of muscle imbalance or neurological condition
 Amblyopia – suppression of images which causes a
blurred image in either or both eyes (“lazy eye”); can lead
to permanent vision loss if untreated

10. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are Some Causes of
Blindness and Low Vision? (continued)
 External eye problems can affect the orbit, eyelids
and cornea
 Growths, thinning, or inflammation of the cornea can
lead to problems with vision, pain, and tearing of the
cornea
 Internal eye problems can include Retinopathy of
Prematurity (a possible complication of premature
birth
 Cortical visual impairment – vision loss associated
with brain damage

11. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are some Possible Characteristics of
Students with of Blindness or Low Vision?
(continued on the next slide)
 Intellectual Characteristics: The ability to see may
have little or no effect on one’s general intelligence.
 Play and Social Interaction Skills: These may be
delayed.
 Language and Concept Development: Language
does not appear to be significantly affected for many
students. Association of words with concepts and
understanding concepts may be difficult without
hands-on experiences.

12. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are some Possible Characteristics of
Students with of Blindness or Low Vision?
(continued)
 Academic Achievement: When considering achievement,
assessment methods should be considered. Students with
blindness or low vision can succeed in academics at the
same rate as their peers.
 Perceptual Abilities: Visual perception may be
significantly affected and include orientation, mobility,
and wayfinding
 Psychological and Social Adjustment: These areas may
be affected including social isolation and negative
reactions from peers

13. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
How is Blindness and Low Vision
Identified in Infants and Toddlers?
 Medical professionals may diagnose based on
a child’s lack of visual fixation on parents’
faces or interesting objects, abnormal eye
movement, family history, and visual acuity.

14. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
How is Blindness and Low Vision
Identified in School-Aged Students?
 Snellen charts are used for screening.
 Teacher reports of frequent behaviors (rubbing eyes, squinting,
tilting head to look at books, holding objects close to eyes,
etc.) that indicate problems seeing.
 Comprehensive assessment – follows confirmation of a vision
loss adversely affecting educational performance
 Functional vision, learning media, cognitive ability, academic
achievement, orientation and mobility skills, social skills and
independent living skills

15. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What Should I Teach Students with
Blindness or Low Vision?
 Regular curriculum + expanded core
curriculum to address their needs specific to
their vision loss
 Expanded core curriculum may include skills
needed in the core curriculum at a greater
depth than sighted peers or skills sighted peers
would not need
 Self-advocacy and self-determination skills

16. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What is the Expanded
Core Curriculum?
 Skills students with blindness or low vision
may need
 Compensatory skills
 Visual efficiency skills
 Literacy and Braille skills
 Listening skills
 Orientation and mobility skills
 Social interaction skills
 Independent living skills
 Recreation and leisure skills
 Career and transition skills

17. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
How Should I Teach Students with
Blindness and Low Vision?
 In general, students with blindness and low vision should learn
the same information as general education students although
more time and accommodations might be needed.
 Counseling to deal with reactions from others
 Possible teaching of care for prosthetic eye
 Adaptations for color or visual discrimination problems
 Responding to traffic signals, etc.
 Provide a copy of teacher’s notes
 Read aloud
 Supply audio tapes/CDs of print materials
 Use hands-on models and manipulatives

18. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are Considerations for the
Instructional Environment?
 Assist through touch and sound, more than sight, for those
with little or no functional vision.
 Use specialized equipment.
 Provide equal access to the core curriculum.
 Do not re-arrange the furniture or leave items in the path.
 Determine the LRE based on student needs and strengths,
preferences, and related services needs.
 In general, provide appropriate lighting, tactile materials,
necessary print size, and decrease visual clutter.

19. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What Types of Instructional
Technology Can be Used?
 Use programs to magnify computer screens.
 Scan materials for access.
 Provide Braille if the student uses it.
 Always use captioned videos.
 Use of a guide dog may be needed.
 May scan in materials and use a synthesizer
that reads the text to the student
 Voice recognition software applications

20. © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Taylor/Smiley/Richards, Exceptional Students
What are Some Considerations for the
General Education Teacher?
 Request large print materials in advance.
 Get training on the use of optical devices and software.
 Encourage student relationships and interaction.
 Support emotional and learning needs.
 Provide daily cues.
 Consult with vision specialist regularly.
 Use tactile materials.
 Reduce glare on materials.
 Speak in normal tones.
 Tell the student when you are leaving the room.
 Maintain high expectations and give regular feedback.