2. WHAT IS TEMPERATURE?
• Qualitatively, the temperature of an
object determines the sensation of
warmth or coldness felt by touching it.
More specifically, temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of
the particles in a sample of matter,
expressed in units of degrees on a
standard scale.
3. • Temperature is the degree of
"hotness" (or "coldness"), a measure
the of the heat intensity. When two
objects of different temperature are
in contact, the warmer object
becomes colder while the colder
object becomes warmer. It means
that heat flows from the warmer
object to the colder one.
4. • Thermometer helps us determine how cold
or how hot a substance is. Temperatures in
science (and in most of the world) are
measured and reported in degrees Celsius
(o
C). In the US, temperatures are commonly
reported in degrees Fahrenheit (o
F). On both
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, the
temperature at which ice melts (water
freezes) and the temperature at which water
boils are used as reference points.
5. • On the Celsius scale, freezing point of water is
defined as 0 o
C, and the boiling point is defined as
100 o
C.
• On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 o
F and
boils at 212 o
F.
• On the Celsius scale there are 100 degrees between
freezing and boiling of water, compared to 180
degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. This means that 1
oC= 1.8 oF.
• Thus the following formulas can be used to convert
temperature between the two scales:
• (1) F = 1.8 C + 32 = 9/5 C + 32
(2) C = 0.56( F -32) =5/9( F-32)
6. DEG F DEG C DEG RDEG K
ABSOLUTE ZERO
ICE
POINT
STEAM
POINT
00-273-459
491273032
671373100212
7.
8. Types Of Measurement
• There are four basic types of temperature
measuring devices, each of which uses a
different principle:
– Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers,
bimetallic strips, etc.).
– Thermojunctive (thermocouples).
– Thermoresistive (RTDs and thermistors).
– Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers).
9. Mechanical temperature
measuring devices
• Principle of operation:
– A change in temperature causes some kind of
mechanical motion, typically due to the fact that
most materials expand with a rise in temperature.
Mechanical thermometers can be constructed
which use liquids, solids, or even gases as the
temperature-sensitive material.
– The mechanical motion is read on a physical scale
to infer the temperature.
10. Liquid-in-glass thermometer
– The most common and well-known
thermometer is the liquid-in-glass
thermometer.
– As the temperature rises, the liquid
expands, moving up the tube. The
scale is calibrated to read
temperature directly.
• Usually, mercury or some kind of alcohol is
used for the liquid
11. Bimetallic strip thermometer
– Two dissimilar metals are bonded together
into what is called a bimetallic strip, as
sketched.
– Suppose metal A has a smaller coefficient of
thermal expansion than does metal B.
– As temperature increases, metal B expands
more than does metal A, causing the bimetallic
strip to curl upwards as sketched.
13. Pressure thermometer
• considered mechanical, operates by the
expansion of a gas instead of a liquid or
solid. (Note: There are also pressure
thermometers which use a liquid instead
of a gas.)
• Suppose the gas inside the bulb and tube
can be considered an ideal gas. The ideal
gas law is
PV = mRT
14. o R is a constant. The bulb and tube are of
constant volume, so V is a constant. Also,
the mass, m, of gas in the sealed bulb and
tube must be constant. Hence, the above
equation reduces to
P = constant times T.
– A pressure thermometer therefore
measures temperature indirectly by
measuring pressure.
• The gage is a pressure gage, but is
typically calibrated in units of
temperature instead.
16. MERCURY IN STEEL
THERMOMETER
• MERCURY - IN - STEEL thermometer works
on the principle of expansion of mercury due
to rise in temperature. The whole system is
filled with mercury under pressure. The
definite volume of mercury contained in the
bulb expands under effect of temperature to
be measured. The increaase in volume of
confined mercury is transmitted through the
capillary to the coiled burdon tube which
uncoils proportionally to volume increase
resulting an indication of temperature by the
pointer.
17. GAS FILLED DIAL
THERMOMETERS
• Gas Filled Thermometers deploy
Nitrogen Gas at high pressure as an
expansion gas filled into a closed
system comprising of a bulb (of Steel
or Chrome – Moly Steel), a microbore
capillary (of Steel or Stainless Steel)
and a spiral or ‘C’ shaped Bourdon
Tube (of MS or SS). This system when
heated at bulb end the Gas in the bulb
expands and a pressure is generated
within which moves the spiral / ‘C’
Shaped bourden as it is the only the
elastic element. This movement is
transmitted to a rack and pinion
movement which drives a pointer thus
showing temperature on a calibrated
dial.
18. THERMOCOUPLE
• The Thermocouple is a thermoelectric temperature
sensor which consists of two dissimilar metallic wires,
e.g., one chromel and one constantan. These two wires
are connected at two different junctions, one for
temperature measurement and the other for reference.
The temperature difference between the two junctions is
detected by measuring the change in voltage
(electromotive force, EMF) across the dissimilar metals
at the temperature measurement junction.
41. Thermistors
– A thermistor is similar to an RTD, but a
semiconductor material is used instead of a metal.
A thermistor is a solid state device.
– A thermistor has larger sensitivity than does an RTD,
but the resistance change with temperature is
nonlinear.
– Furthermore, unlike RTDs, the resistance of a
thermistor decreases with increasing temperature.
– Thermistors cannot be used to measure high
temperatures either, compared to RTDs. In fact, the
maximum temperature of operation is sometimes
only 100 or 200 oC.
42. From the circuit diagram, it is clear that this is a
simple voltage divider. Rs is some fixed (supply)
resistor. Rs and the supply voltage, Vs, can be
adjusted to obtain the desired range of output
voltage Vo for a given range of temperature.
43. Radiative temp.measuring devices
(radiative pyrometry)
• Principle of operation:
– Radioactive properties of an object change with
temperature.
– So, radioactive properties are measured to infer the
temperature of the object.
– The advantages of radioactive pyrometry are:
• There is no physical contact with the object whose
temperature is being measured.
• Very high temperatures can be measured.
44. • The fundamental equation for radiation
from a body is the Stefan-Boltzmann
equation,
45. – where
• E is the emissive power radiated per unit area (units
of W/m2).
• is the emissivity, defined as the fraction of blackbody
radiation emitted by an actual surface. The emissivity
must lie between 0 and 1, and is dimensionless. Its
value depends greatly on the type of surface. A
blackbody has an emissivity of exactly 1.
• is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
• T is the absolute temperature of the surface of the
object (units of K).
46. Infrared Pyrometer
• An infrared pyrometer infers the temperature of a
hot surface by measuring the temperature of a
detector inside a detector chamber as shown
below:
47. IDENTIFICATION BY COLOUR
• DARK RED :540 DEG C
• MEDIUM CHERRY RED :680 DEG C
• ORANGE :900 DEG C
• YELLOW :1010 DEG C
• WHITE :1250 DEG C
48. Features of Pyrometer
– An optical pyrometer is useful for measuring very
high temperatures (even flames).
– An optical pyrometer works by comparing a
glowing wire of known temperature to the glow
(optical radiation) from a hot object.
– When the internal wire and the glow of the object
are the same color, the temperatures are assumed
to be equal.
• The temperature of the internal wire is controlled
and known, and thus the temperature of the object
can be inferred
49. Attribute Thermocouple RTD Thermistor
Cost Low High Low
Temperature
Range
Very wide
-450ºF
+4200ºF
Wide
-400ºF
+1200ºF
Short to medium
-100ºF
+500ºF
Interchange
ability
Good Excellent Poor to fair
Long-term
Stability
Poor to fair Good Poor
Accuracy Medium High Medium
Repeatability Poor to fair Excellent Fair to good
Sensitivity
(output)
Low Medium Very high
Response Medium to fast Medium Medium to fast
Linearity Fair Good Poor
Self Heating No Very low to low High
Point (end)
Sensitive
Excellent Fair Good
Lead Effect High Medium Low
Size/Packaging Small to large
Medium to
small
Small to medium
Hinweis der Redaktion
The Thermocouple is a thermoelectric temperature sensor which consists of two dissimilar metallic wires, e.g., one chromel and one constantan. These two wires are connected at two different junctions, one for temperature measurement and the other for reference. The temperature difference between the two junctions is detected by measuring the change in voltage (electromotive force, EMF) across the dissimilar metals at the temperature measurement junction.
Thermocouples manipulate the fact that the electromotive force (EMF) between two dissimilar metals is a function of their temperature difference (gradient). However, three major effects are involved in a thermocouple circuit: the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects.
The Seebeck effect describes the electromotive force (EMF) existing between two dissimilar metallic materials. The change in material EMF with respect to a change in temperature is called the Seebeck coefficient or thermoelectric sensitivity. This coefficient is usually a nonlinear function of temperature.
EMF that is reversible and associated with changes in temperature is called the Peltier effect. Finally, the Thomson effect relates the reversible thermal gradient and EMF in a homogeneous conductor.
Grounded
When assembling the thermocouple into a protective metal sheath, we can weld
the thermocouple junction directly to the inside tip of the sheath (Figure 16).
Why attach the junction to the sheath? Can you think of any reasons?
Attaching the junction to the sheath ensures rapid heat transfer from the sheath
to the junction. Thus, the sheath protects the thermocouple junction while
minimizing any heat transfer delays to it.
Ungrounded
The ungrounded junction is similar to the grounded junction, except it is isolated
(insulated) from the metal sheath (Figure 17). Why insulate the junction from
the metal sheath?
Insulating the thermocouple junction electrically isolates it from the sheath
metal. This is done to prevent stray voltages on a machine from inducing a
measuring error in the thermocouple. Ungrounded junctions are also more
shock resistant and better survive under rapid temperature change conditions.
Unfortunately, the insulation slows down heat transfer to the thermocouple
junction. An ungrounded junction in a MgO insulated, metal-sheathed
thermocouple requires 2 to 3 times as long to respond to temperature changes as
a grounded thermocouple.
Exposed
This type of junction protrudes from the end of the sheath, but is insulated from
it (Figure 18). Because the junction is directly exposed to the material being heated,
the junction responds very quickly to temperature changes. There is no
sheath or insulation to slow down heat transfer.
The disadvantage, though, is that an exposed junction is not protected from
mechanical damage and chemical attack. If the junction is damaged or chemically
attacked, a measuring error will result.
Life
“How long will this thermocouple last?” This is one of the most frequently
asked questions about thermocouples. How should you answer? Try, “It
depends.” Diplomatic, heh? Seriously, the fact is that it DOES depend. Life
depends on many factors. Among them: operating temperature, thermocouple
wire size, thermocouple protection, operating environment, accuracy required,
etc. Instead of examining each point in detail, let’s focus on “life” and how it
relates to thermocouple accuracy.
Normally, thermocouples don’t “fail” like electric heaters. When an electric
heater “fails”, it burns out - no more heat. A thermocouple, on the other hand,
gets more and more inaccurate as time goes on. At some point, the accuracy is
so “bad” that the thermocouple is said to have “failed.” Here’s how it works.
When thermocouple wires are heated and cooled, physical and chemical changes
take place. Physically, the molecular structure of the thermocouple metal
changes. Chemically, the thermocouple wires react with oxygen or other
substances. These chemical reactions change the chemical composition of the thermocouple
wire. The chemical reactions are accelerated at higher temperatures.
As these chemical (and physical) changes take place over time, a thermocouple‘s
millivolt signal “drifts” (Figure 10). The result is that the thermocouple will no
longer measure temperature within its stated accuracy band. “Drifting” may
start within a few minutes or may take many months - it all depends on how a
thermocouple is used. This is also the reason why tolerances are called initial
calibration tolerances. The tolerances are only valid for the very first use. After
the first use, there is no guarantee that the tolerance will hold.
RTDs are precision temperature sensors. They are used in industrial applications
as well as laboratories. RTD elements are typically more accurate than thermocouple
elements and maintain that accuracy over a longer period of time. They
are generally used up to 1200°F (650°C). How does an RTD work? How does it
compare to a thermocouple? Let’s pursue the answers to these questions and
many more!
A RTD can take many forms. The most often used RTD elements are shown
below. Figure 19a shows a fine platinum element wire coiled around a very small
diameter ceramic cylinder. Platinum resistance elements are most often used, but
nickel, copper and nickel-iron are also used. Small lead wires are welded on to
the resistance element. The assembly is then encapsulated in glass to seal it and
prevent contamination.
Figure
The detector itself is usually a thermopile. It measures Tdet, the temperature of the detector inside the chamber.
Tind is the indicated temperature, which is calculated from Tdet, from the known geometry and the radiation equations. Tind is calibrated as a function of TH for a body of some assumed emissivity.
The instrument is set up such that Tind is a function of the voltage output. The instrument typically displays a temperature, i.e. Tind, rather than voltage Vdet.
Tind can be thought of as an uncorrected estimate of TH, since the emissivity of the object may not be the same as that assumed by the infrared pyrometer. In other words, if the actual emissivity of the object is not the same as the assumed emissivity, Tind will be incorrect.
To correct for the actual emissivity of the object,
In the above equations, absolute temperatures must be used!