It will help u in understanding of the decision making process at all...

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 Topic Name:
Decision Making
 Subject:
Educational Leadership and Management
 Submitted To:
Dr. Ayesha Batool
 Participants Name:
Syeda Anum Huda
Hafsa Akram
Iqra Shahzadi
Daniya Asif
Naeem-ul-Hassan

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 Decision making , universally defined as the process of
choosing from among alternatives , is important to an
understanding of educational administration because choice
processes play an important role in motivation , leadership ,
communication , and organizational change . Decision making
pervades all other administrative functions as well . Planning ,
organizing , staffing , directing , coordinating , and controlling
all involve decision making.
Decision Making

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 “Decision-making is the selection based on some
criteria from two or more possible alternatives.“
George R.Terry
 “Decision-making involves the selection of a course
of action from among two or more possible
alternatives in order to arrive at a solution for a
given problem.” Trewatha & Newport
Decision Making

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Herbert Simon: He is the Nobel Prize-winning decision
theorist , made key contributions to enhance our
understanding of the decision-making process.
Three Stages:
 • Intelligence which deals with the problem
identification and the data collection on the problem.
 • Design which deals with the generation of alternative
solutions to the problem at hand.
 • Choice which is selecting the 'best' solution from
amongst the alternative solutions using some criterion.
Stages of decision-making
according to Herbert Simon:

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 Identification Phase : The decision maker recognizes a problem
or opportunity and makes a diagnosis.
 Development Phase : The decision maker searches for existing
standard procedures or solutions already in place or designs a
new , tailor-made solution.
 Selection phase : There are three ways of making this selection
: by the judgment of the decision maker ; by analysis of the
alternatives on a logical , systematic basis ; and by bargaining.
Henry Mintzberg Phases in the
Decision-Making Process

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1) Define the problem
2) Analyze the problem
3) Develop the alternative solutions to the problem
4) Decide on the best solution
5) Convert decisions into effective actions
6) Monitor and assess the results.
Six Steps in Decision-Making
Process by Peter Drucker

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Decision making is one type of activity that has been
studied extensively through the use of models. Models
attempt to describe theoretically and practically how
school administrators make decisions.
Models of Decision Making
1. The Classical Decision Making Model
2. The Behavioral Decision Making Model
3. The Vroom-Yetton Normative Model
Models of Decision-Making

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 Classical approach is also known as prescriptive,
rational or normative model. It specifies how decision
should be made to achieve the desired outcome.
 The classical model, also called as the rational model,
represents the earliest attempt to model decision-
making processes.
The Classical Decision Making Model

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This model involves seven basic stages:
 Identifying the Problem: Recognizing that a decision-making
situation exists along with problems or opportunities.
 Developing Object and Criteria: Once decision makers have
identified a problem or opportunity, then they determine the
criteria for selecting among the alternatives to deal with it.
 Analyzing Alternative: Determine which alternatives would
produce minimally acceptable results.
Cont….
The Classical Decision Making Model

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 Choosing an Alternative: Select an alternative flows naturally
out of your analysis.
 Implementing the Decision: Implement your alternative
solutions to the current situation.
 Evaluating the Decision: Compare the results with objectives
and standards you established.
The Classical Decision Making Model

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 Behavioral decision making model is also known as the
bounded rationality model.
 Bounded rational decision making defined as an ability and
willingness to follow a reasoned, unemotional and logical
approach in decision making.
 Simon created the bounded rationality model to explain why
limits exist to how rational a decision maker can actually be
within a decision-making environment.
The Behavioral Decision Making
Model

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 Decisions will always be based on an incomplete and to some
degree, inadequate comprehension of the true nature of the
problem being faced.
 Decision makers will never succeed in generating all possible
alternative solutions for consideration.
 Alternatives are always evaluated incompletely because it is
impossible to predict accurately all Consequences associated
with each alternative.
 The ultimate decision regarding which alternative to choose
must be based on some criterion other than maximization
because it is impossible ever to determine which alternative is
optimal.
Behavioral Model according to
Mary Zey Point of View

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 Satisficing: Satisficing is a decision-making strategy that aims
for a satisfactory or adequate result, rather than the optimal
solution.
 Contextual Rational & Procedural Rationality: A contextual
rationality recognizes that rational action does not need to be
fully aware of the reasons for action.
 Retrospective Rationality: Decision makers spend time
justifying the rationality of past decisions.
Counti…..
Principles in Behavioral Decision
Making Model

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 Incrementalizing: It is the small changes in the existing
situation. It is a process of successive limited comparison of
alternative.
 The Garbage Can Model: Mixing problem , solution and
decision participant results in interaction patterns leading to
decisions that often do not follow the classical decision- making
model sequence.
Principles in Behavioral Decision
Making Model

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“It help you to identify the best decision-making approach and
leadership style to take, based on your current situation.”
Decision Effectiveness: Three critical aspects influence overall
effectiveness.
1. Decision Quality: Decision quality refers to the extent to which a
decision is effective.
2. Decision acceptance: Refers to the extent to which decisions are
accepted by those subordinates who must implement them.
3. Timeliness: Refers to the amount of time available to the decision
maker to arrive at a decision.
The Vroom-Yetton Normative Model

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1) Autocratic (AI): You make the decision yourself using the
available information.
2) Autocratic (AII): Obtaining the needed information from
subordinates, and then you make the final decision.
3) Consultative (CI): Share the problem with team or
subordinators and ask for members' opinions individually, but
you don't bring the group together for a discussion. You make
the final decision.
Counti……
Five Decision-Making Styles of
the Vroom-Yetton Model

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4) Consultative (CII): Discuss the problem in group discussion and
obtain their suggestions, but you still make the final decision by
yourself.
5) Group II (GII): Share the problem in a group or subordinates,
your role is like a chairman, coordinator and do not try to impose
your suggestion or ideas on them, you just help team members to
reach a decision and that they all agree on.
Five Decision-Making Styles of
the Vroom-Yetton Model

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Rules to protect the quality of the decision
1. Leader Information Rule: If decision quality is important and
the leader does not able to solve the problem by himself, then
eliminate Al from the feasible set.
2. Goal Congruence Rule: If decision quality is important and
your team is not able to pursue the organization goals,
eliminate Gll.
3. Unstructured Problem Rule: If the leader does not have the
necessary information and not able to solve the problem, the
problem solving method should provide for interaction
among subordinates likely to possess relevant information.
Consequently, eliminate Al, All and Cl form the feasible set.
Rules for Decision Making
Selection

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Rules to protect the acceptance of the decision
1. Acceptance Rule: If decision acceptance by subordinates is
critical and if it is not possible that autocratic decision
accepted then an autocratic decision will be accepted. Then
eliminate AI and AII from the feasible set.
2. Conflict Rule: If decision acceptance is critical and if an
autocratic decision is not assured to be accepted then
eliminate AI, AII and CI.
Rules for Decision Making
Selection

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Rules to protect the acceptance of the decision
3. Fairness Rule: If decision quality is unimportant but
acceptance of the decision is critical and not certain to result
from an autocratic decision. The decision process should
permit subordinates to interact. Then eliminate AI, AII, CI
from the feasible set.
4. Acceptance Priority Rule: If acceptance is critical, but not
certain to result from an autocratic decision, and if
subordinates are motivated to pursue the goals. Eliminate AI
AII, CI and CII from the feasible set.
Rules for Decision Making
Selection

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Site-base decision making (SBDM) seems meant to be one of the
major reforms of the twenty first century. The American
Association of School Administrators and the National Education
Association are pushing for adoption of SBDM.
There are six benefits of decision making.
Benefits of Site Based Decision
Making

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There are six decision making benefits are as
follow:
 Decision Quality: Ideas and decision are better than
individuals because it is a sum of group knowledge
 Decision Creativity: Group participations increase the
performance.
 Decision Acceptance: Participation in decision making
increases acceptance of the decision.This is not viable in school
districts that are highly centralized because is based on the
participation of the other members or groups.
Counti……
Benefits of Site Based Decision
Making

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 Decision Understanding: It is a process of group participation
that increases the information about the problem which leads
the better understanding about the problem.
 Decision Judgment: Alike this increases the information about
the problem, so the participates can evaluate the decision more
effectively.
 Decision Accuracy: Because group members evaluate each
other’s thinking, major errors, mistakes, and faults tend to be
avoided.
Benefits of Site Based Decision
Making

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“Techniques are the particular method of doing an activity,
usually involved practical skills.”
1) Brainstorming
2) Nominal Group Technique
3) The Delphi Technique
4) Devil’s Advocacy
5) Dialectical Inquiry
Site-Based Decision Making
Techniques

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“Brainstorming is a technique by which a group
attempts to find a solution(s) to a specific problem by
amassing ideas spontaneously.” (Osborn, 1953).
Brainstorming

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Brainstorming

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Rules for brainstorming:
 Discuss alternatives/Don't evaluate: Avoid criticism of own
and other's ideas. Every idea has validity.
 Encourage Freewheeling: While brainstorming, ideas are
neither silly nor impossible. Allow yourself to imagine as much
as you want.
 Encourage and welcome quantities of idea: The more ideas,
the better. It obviously depends on the situation.
 Encouraging piggybacking: When you’re doing it in a group,
accept other people’s ideas.
Brainstorming

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The Nominal Group Technique was originally
developed by Delbecq and VandeVen as an alternative
to brainstorming.
Nominal Group Technique

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 Six Steps:
1) Silent Generation of Idea: Each participant works
individually to come up with new ideas.
2) Round Robin Recording of Ideas: Group members engage in
a round-robin feedback session to concisely record each
3) Discussion of Ideas: Each recorded idea is then discussed to
determine clarity and importance.
Nominal Group Technique

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4) Preliminary vote on item importance: Individuals vote
privately to prioritize the ideas. The votes are tallied to
identify the ideas that are rated highest by the group as a
whole.
5) Additional discussion: voting patterns are analyzed and
reasons examined to determined if more accurate decision can
be made.
6) Final voting: It also occur same as secret ranking .it completes
the decision process and provide closure.
Nominal Group Technique

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It's a structured communication technique that relies on panel of
experts who anonymously reply to questionnaires after which
feedback is received in a statistical form of group response.
(Cherries Simon ,2018)
Delphi Technique

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Delphi Technique Depend on:
 Expertise
 Communication skills
 Motivation of participant
 Time that organization take in decision making
Major Objective:
 To improve group decision making by obtaining consensus of
opinion but without face to face interaction.( Dalkey and
Helmer 1963).
Delphi Technique

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Person who identifies and challenges the flaws in an
assessment, plan, or strategy. It introduces the conflict
into decision making process.
(Alana Rivello 2015)
Devil’s Advocacy

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 Identification of problem
 Division of groups
1. Affirmation recommendation
2. Devil’s advocacy
 Preparation of argument
 Joining of both groups for discussion
 Again separation for better results
 Repetition of previous steps
 Agree and move forward.
Steps:

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An alternative approach for controlling group
phenomenon in decision making such as group
thinking.
Dialectical Inquiry

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The process can be described as follows (Barabba, 1983):
1) The process begins with the formation of two or more
divergent groups to represent the full range of views on a
specific problem.
2) Each group meets separately, identifies the assumptions
behind its position
3) Each group debates the other groups’ position and defends its
own.
4) Information, provided by all groups, is analyzed.
5) An attempt to achieve consensus among the positions occurs.
Dialectical Inquiry Process

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 Risky Shift Definition
 Few Suggestions on Site Based Decision Making
1. Persuading Staff
2. Relieving the Threats
3. Tacking the Important
4. Defining the Limits
5. Watch Your Size
6. Understanding Consensus
7. Securing Top Support
8. Broadening Participation
9. Defining the Roles
Problems in Site-Based Decision
Making

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