1. ! "
!
!
EDINBURGH NAPIER UNIVERSITY"
School of Life Sciences"
HONOURS PROJECT"
Identifying the Ideal Future Time Perspective and Subtype of Regulation in the
Self-Determination Theory across the Stages of Change Model for Exercise
Behaviour
!
!
!
!
!
Submitted by: Merielle Moffatt"
Supervisor: Dr Tony Westbury"
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Sport and Exercise Science
!
April 2015"
Word Count: 10,453
2. ii
Abstract
The aim will be to analyse how the future time perspective theory (FTPT) and self-
determination theory (SDT) relate to higher levels of exercise behaviour across the
while considering the trans theoretical model (TTM). More specifically, to correlate
later stages of change (action and maintenance) with higher levels of exercise
behaviour (intensity, duration and frequency), future time perspective (FTP)
orientation and more intrinsic forms of self-determination (identified, integrated and
intrinsic). Participants (n = 125 males; n = 140 females) (age: 26±8.8yrs) were
recruited for this study from the Edinburgh Napier University Facebook page through
voluntary participation. Each participant completed an online questionnaire available
through SurveyMonkey. A post hoc analysis revealed with significance (p <0.05) there
was a positive linear relationship across the stages of change model for intensity and
duration. A crosstabs test showed across the stages of change there was significance
(p <0.05) in a relationship between later stages of change and higher frequency,
intrinsic regulation an FTP orientation. The findings from this research will allow
promotion and preservation of inspiration to exercise through adult life in individuals
who already exercise regularly. Practitioners would be well-advised to encourage their
clients to progress towards intrinsic forms of regulation by supporting elements all
elements of intrinsic regulation of autonomy, relatedness and competence.
Word Count: 210
3. iii
Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 3
Foreword................................................................................................................ 3
Stages of Change Introduction............................................................................ 3
Self-Determination Continuum Introduction ...................................................... 5
Future Time Perspective Introduction ................................................................ 7
Stages of Change Methods.................................................................................. 8
Self Determination Theory Methods.................................................................... 9
Future Time Perspective Methods..................................................................... 10
Stages of Change Applied in Research ............................................................ 11
Self Determination Theory Applied in Research.............................................. 12
Future Time Perspective Applied in Research................................................. 15
Study Aim ............................................................................................................... 18
Study Objectives................................................................................................. 19
Hypotheses............................................................................................................. 20
Null Hypothesis................................................................................................... 20
Study Design .......................................................................................................... 21
Methods .................................................................................................................. 22
Participants ......................................................................................................... 22
Stages of Change Questionnaire....................................................................... 22
Consideration of Future Consequences Scale-14 ........................................... 23
Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-3...................................... 24
The Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire ............................................ 25
Procedure ............................................................................................................... 26
Controls and Considerations............................................................................. 26
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 27
Costs.................................................................................................................... 27
Data Storage........................................................................................................ 28
Potential Risks .................................................................................................... 28
Possible Outcomes............................................................................................. 28
Results .................................................................................................................... 29
Exercise Behaviour............................................................................................. 29
Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-3...................................... 32
5. v
List of Figures
Figure 1: The Stages of Change Model……………………………………….…………5
Figure 2: The Self-Determination Continuum……………………………………………6
Figure 3: Duration of Exercise and the Stages of Change………………...…………30
Figure 4: Intensity of Exercise and the Stages of Change ………………...………...31
6. vi
List of Tables
Table 1: Frequency of Exercise and the Stages of Change…………………….…..30
Table 2: Self-Determination and the Stages of Change……………………………..32
Table 3: Time Perspective and the Stages of Change……………………………….33
7. vii
Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to thank Dr Tony Westbury for persistent support during
this study in order for it to be complete with confidence. The guidance constant
communication and willingness to offer assistance allowed for this study to be
possible. I would also like to thank Marlee Moffatt for the hours spent assisting me edit
and proof read this study.
8. 1
Introduction
Physical exercise is considered one of the best prescriptions for maintaining health,
however healthy levels of exercise behaviour are often not incorporated into many
adults’ lives (Blair, 2009). Maintaining motivation to start or continue an exercise
routines is a common issue many adults struggle with. Understanding how different
kinds of motivation affect exercise behaviour is the first step in identifying means to
increase exercise in adults (Duncan et al., 2010). It is recommended in order to
maintain physical health and overall well-being, adults aged 18 to 65 require
moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity for a minimum of 30 minutes, five days a
week or vigorous-intensity aerobic activity for a minimum of 20 minutes, three days
each week (Haskell et al., 2007). It is important to note that each of the recommended
guidelines incorporate classifications for the following exercise characteristics:
intensity, duration and frequency (Duncan et al., 2010).
Though previous studies have examined how to identify the ideal motivational climate
for exercise, often these studies only consider one theory or model behind motivation
(Blissmer and McAuley, 2002; Guthrie et al., 2014; Ingledew et al., 2004; Joireman et
al., 2012; Khana et al., 2005; Wilson et al., 2006; Wulf et al., 2014; Ziegelmann et al.,
2006). While this approach is simple and produces a reasonable result for motivation
behind exercise, it does not account for depth of knowledge that could be applied in
order to better understand motivation for exercise. Using combinations of multiple
theories proves difficult but allows for better understanding of a more ideal form of
exercise motivation for adults (Gellbert et al., 2011; Vansteenkiste et al., 2004;
Wininger and DeSena, 2012).
9. 2
A well-researched concept in motivational psychology and exercise is the Trans
Theoretical Model (TTM), which specifically outlines the stages of change continuum
and classifies individuals on a scale of current participation in exercise behaviour
(Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983). TTM can be used to identify the progression of
an individual adopting a behaviour, and is useful for classification purposes due to the
simplicity and straightforward structure (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983). In order
to promote healthy exercise behaviours, identification of the current participation of
exercise and motivation characteristics is pertinent in order to identify motivation for
future exercise habits (Adams and White 2005; Daley and Duda, 2006; Duncan et al.,
2010; Ingledew et al., 2004; Spencer et al., 2006).
Another theory to describe motivation for exercise behaviour is the Self-Determination
Theory (SDT), which classifies an individual with more intrinsic motives as more
motivated extending down to more extrinsic motives as less motivated (Deci and Ryan,
1985). Understanding how different kinds of motivation contribute to exercise
behaviour is an important first step in identifying ways to increase exercise among
adults. The benefits of correcting unhealthy behaviours are often short term, while
living a healthy lifestyle indicates long term health benefits and a healthy future as a
motivational source (Adams, 2009). These opposing perspectives are known as
immediate-orientated and future-orientated as determined by the Future Time
Perspective Theory (FTPT), which represents an individual’s orientation in the present
or future (Guthrie et al., 2014).
To date no single study has been conducted independently comparing the subtypes
of self-determination and the FTPT for all three characteristics of exercise behaviour
10. 3
across the stages of change model. Thus, this study will aim to examine how the
FTPT and SDT can both be considered in order to identify the ideal time perspective
and subtype of regulation in self-determination for completing recommended levels of
exercise (Gellbert et al., 2011; Haskell et al., 2007; Ingledew et al., 1998; Prochaska
and DiClemente, 1983; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al., 2004; Wininger
and DeSena, 2012; Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999). The purpose of this research will be
to assist intervention strategies in order to promote recommended levels of exercise.
Literature Review
Foreword
Prior to conducting this study, a literature review was completed to examine commonly
known strategies, keywords and phrases. Search engines used for this investigation
included: Elsevier, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. Key phrases used in
the search included a combination of the following: FTP, TTM, stages of change, self-
determination, health, exercise and motivation. After reviewing over 250 articles, 46
were determined to be suitable for the criteria of this study. Additional information
regarding the selection of these sources is detailed in the Methods section of this
report. Journal articles and literature consulted for this report include: Meta-analysis,
systematic reviews, randomized control trails, quasi-experimental studies and case
studies. Critique of the methods, results and procedures of each source developed
this literature review.
Stages of Change Introduction
The TTM of behaviour change assesses an individual's ‘readiness’ to act on a new
behaviour; this process involves progression through a series of stages (Figure 1:
11. 4
Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983). These stages, or components of the TTM that
have been found to affect exercise behaviour, are: the stage of change, processes of
change, decisional balance, self-efficacy, and possibility of relapse (Spencer et al.,
2006). All of these components will be accounted for in this study through the SDT
and the FTPT comparison, but the main TTM component used in this study was the
stages of change accounting for the current level of exercise engagement. The stages
of change is not an explanatory model, it does not specify the mechanism that
individuals use to change from one stage to the other (Daley and Duda, 2006). The
model simply distinguishes the stages and assumes individuals in higher stages of
change are more motivated. Identification of stages in the model allows for better
tailored recommendations and consequently increases success or continued
motivation (Bardisa-Ezcurra et al., 2009; De Bourdeauhuij et al., 2005). The stages of
change’ progression is divided into the following: precontemplation, contemplation,
preparation, action, and maintenance (See Figure 1) (Prochaska and DiClemente,
1983).
In reference to the stages of change progression of an individual’s ‘readiness’ to
engage in regular exercise, earlier stages of change associate with more extrinsic
motives, whereas the later stages of change are more associated with intrinsic motives
(Ingledew et al., 1998). Specifically, individuals in the precontemplation phase have
no intention of beginning exercise, while in the contemplation phase the individual
intends to start exercising (typically within the in the next 6 months) (Duncan et al.,
2010). The preparation phase is typically when individuals who exercise irregularly
intend to make a routine of exercise behaviour (Ingledew et al., 2004). In the action
phase, individuals exercise regularly, but are still able to digress through the model if
12. 5
there is lack support (Ingledew et al., 2004). In the final stage, maintenance, the
individual has been exercising regularly for at least 6 months (Duncan et al., 2010).
Figure 1: The stages of change model conceptualizes the process of intentional behaviour change
(Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983).
Self-Determination Continuum Introduction
Deci and Ryan (1985) first developed the SDT based on the concept that all humans
are motivated by the desire to satisfy three fundamental psychological needs:
competence, autonomy and relatedness. Competence, or the belief in one's own
ability to complete exercise and reach goals directly links with self-efficacy, is also a
key component of the TTM (Spencer et al., 2006). Depending on the level of
satisfaction, these three fundamental psychological needs determine the degree to
which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated (Ryan and Deci, 2000). A subdivision
of the SDT is the organismic integration theory which considers how behavioural
13. 6
regulation manifests in varying degrees of self-determination (with a continuum of
behavioural regulation placing emphasis on the quality of motivation) (Daley and
Duda, 2006; Mullan et al., 1997). This self-determined continuum is an adaptable
spectrum with high self-determination being internally influenced and external motives
corresponding to a lower level of self-determination (See Figure 2) (Ryan and Deci,
2000). Mobility through the levels of self-determination is potential and can be
influenced once the current level has been recognised.
Figure 2: Non self-determined behaviours or extrinsic motives are on the lower side of the continuum
and more intrinsically motivated behaviour or self-determined are on the opposite end (Ryan and Deci,
2000).
On the left extreme of the spectrum, amotivation corresponds to a state of lacking
motivation with no regulatory processes (See Figure 2). While on extreme right side
of the spectrum, intrinsic motivation is an activity being inherently interesting and
pleasing to an individual’s psychological need for competence, autonomy and
relatedness (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). On the other hand,
amotivation is the lack of intent to exercise and relates to the absence of self-
14. 7
determination (Wininger and DeSena, 2012). Due the adjustability of the spectrum,
amotivation can be rehabilitated and changed to external regulation, which offers a
lower point of motivation that is achieved by avoiding punishment or aimed to earn
praise (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Introjected regulation is considered to be internalising
demands from an external source often felt as guilt (Ryan and Deci, 2000). External
and introjected regulation are not often considered to be consistent in maintaining
motivation for exercise due to the high relapse or drop-out rate over extended periods
of time (Pelletier et al., 2001). Instead, identified regulation allows the participant to
feel some control over their choice of behaviour (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Individuals
that show this type of motivation are considered to be more internally motivated than
extrinsically (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). Integrated regulation is the incorporation of
identified regulation with the self so an individual is pursuing the target behaviour
aligning with core values and personal beliefs (Wilson et al., 2006). Intrinsic motivation
is completely internalised, and activities are executed due to the individual's inherent
interest in the task (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
Future Time Perspective Introduction
The concept of an individual’s perspective of the future is labelled as a FTP (De Volder
and Lens, 1982; Nuttin and Lens, 1985). How far an individual plans into the future,
the clarity in which future needs are interpreted, and the degree that the present is
connected to the past all determine how an individual acts in the present (Strathman
et al., 1994). An extended FTP is defined as someone’s preoccupation with a future
time zone and immediate time perspective is more focused on the present (Strathman
et al., 1994). The dminant time perspective is seen as strong motivational force for
individuals engaging in activity (Bilde et al., 2011; Vansteenkiste et al., 2004).
15. 8
Visualised on a spectrum, immediate perspective individuals set most of their goals
for the near future which prioritises emotion-regulation oriented behaviours while
individuals with longer or deeper FTP strive for goals situated in the future with delayed
gratification (Simons et al., 2004; Ziegelmann et al., 2006). Deeper future oriented
thinkers are more likely to engage in health protective behaviours than short-term
orientated individuals (Adams, 2009; Hall et al., 2003; Horstmanshof and Zimitat,
2007). FTP can be operationalised by observing how an individual weighs immediate
actions against future outcomes (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004).
Stages of Change Methods
The Stage of Change Questionnaire (SCQ) can measure change in exercise
behaviour by using a five-category spectrum in which statements align with a current
stage (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance)
(Ingledew et al., 1998). Despite widespread popularity in health psychology for using
the SCQ as a guide for creating interventions, Littell and Girvin (2002) suggest the
stages are not mutually exclusive and there is possibility for out-of-order movement.
Another critique of the SCQ is that this the oversimplified model lacks complete
exploration of the TTM and imposes discrete changes on a continuous process (Littell
and Girvin, 2002). Despite this, the stages of change model is considered to be useful
in experimental designs, but it should be noted on its own it is determined to lack
validity (Spencer et al., 2006). A systematic review by Spencer et al. (2006) applied
the TTM to exercise and showed the need for using the SCQ in defining the current
level of physical activity in order to apply the right intervention strategy even with the
apparent lack of mutually exclusivity and simplicity of the model. It should be noted
when designing and implementing a TTM-based intervention all of the components of
16. 9
the TTM constructs should be considered (Spencer et al., 2006). All aspects of the
TTM were accounted for within this report, with emphasis on the exploration of these
concepts and their relationship within SDT and FTPT models (Adams and White,
2002; Mullan and Markland, 1997). Thus the SCQ was also used in this study for its
ability to determine the current level of exercise involvement seeing as it was also
supported by the SDT, FTPT for the other areas of the TTM.
Self Determination Theory Methods
After a critique of the pre-existing questionnaires including various versions of the
Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ) (Mullan et al., 1997) and
Exercise Motivation Scale (EMS) (Li, 1999) it was determined the best fit version for
this study was the BREQ-3 (Markland and Tobin, 2004; Wilson et al., 2006). The EMS
created by Li (1999) was determined to be unfit for this research due to the simple
structure which shows strong positive relationships with close constructs and weaker
positive associations at opposite ends (Mclachlan and Hagger, 2010). The BREQ was
originally created by Mullan et al. (1997) but was revised by Markland and Tobin (2004)
creating the BREQ-2. This version still did not contain subscales for integrated
regulation therefore did not supply complete operationalisation of the self-determined
motivational subcategories (See Figure 2) (Mclachlan and Hagger, 2010). The BREQ-
3 questionnaire identified all of the subtypes of motivation in relation to exercise
behaviour (Wilson et al., 2006). This version of the questionnaire operationalises
internal forms of motivation as identified, integrated and intrinsic while amotivation,
external and introjected are classified as a lower level of self-determination (Bilde et
al., 2011). It was determined the BREQ-3 (Markland and Tobin, 2004; Wilson et al.,
2006) was best fit for this study for its ability to classify participants into a regulatory
17. 10
group aligning with the fully considered self-determination continuum. The Relative
Autonomy Index (RAI) created by Ryan and Connell (1989) was used for scoring the
BREQ-3, but was restructured for ease in interpretation on a scale of 1-6.
Future Time Perspective Methods
There were two pre-existing questionnaires that could have been utilised for this study.
Guthrie et al. (2014), Bilde et al. (2011) and Wininger and DeSena (2012) used the
Zimbardo’s Time perspective Inventory (ZTPI-F) (Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999); however
this inventory was not suitable for this research for various reasons. Guthrie et al.
(2014) conducted a cross-sectional survey using the ZTPI-F (Zimbardo and Boyd,
1999) and found that in a group of individuals aged 18-24 years old with higher future
time perspective scores, there was a pattern of more frequent exercise behaviour
while higher present-fatalistic time perspective scores associated with lower levels of
exercise. However, this association was not consistent for the group of 25–34 years,
and 35 years and older samples (Guthrie et al., 2014). This lack of correlation with an
older age group could be because the ZTPI-F measures the beliefs, affect and
behaviours associated with future versus present-minded individuals. This orientation
also accounts for an individual’s sense of personal responsibly for the future. This
questionnaire appears to be comprehensive in its multi-facet approach however in this
context is not necessary and may lead to improper conclusions (Wininger and
DeSena, 2012). The complexity of the ZTPI-F (Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999) measure
could account for other characteristics associated with FTP. A prime example of this
occurs when the brain is fully matured (at age 25) and can develop reflection
capabilities (Hart and Jacobs, 1993). The study by Wininger and DeSena (2012) used
both the ZTPI-F and the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (CFC-14) to
18. 11
measure FTP in relation to exercise behaviour. The ZTPI-F was determined to be less
reliable due to the variety of elements assessed by the scale permitting for less
conclusive correlations to be permitted (Wininger and DeSena, 2012).
Joireman et al. (2012) also used the CFC-14, citing the models clear distinction
between future and immediate time perspectives which allowed for significant results.
Joireman et al. (2012) also indicated that this strength was a drawback because of the
assumption that an individual would be completely dominate in either future orientation
or immediate orientation incidentally considering the two perspectives as polar
opposites. Despite this potential concern in operationalisation, the advantage of
allowing a researcher to determine distinctions for motives of exercise behaviour is
best suited for this research. Thus in this study, participants will either be classified as
considerate of immediate consequences (CFC-I) or considerate of future
consequences (CFC-F) (Joireman et al., 2012).
Stages of Change Applied in Research
A study by Adams and White (2005) demonstrated how the action and maintenance
phases of the stages of change model correlated with exercising regularly and the
model components of precontemplation, contemplation and preparation correlated
with irregular exercisers. Another study by Mullan and Markland (1997) proved that
the stages of change and self-regulation subtypes of the SDT were linearly correlated.
This shows that lower stages of change were associated with extrinsic subtypes and
higher stages correlated with intrinsic subtypes. This was also evident in a meta-
analysis of 150 studies that focused on the TTM in regards to exercise behaviour
(Spencer et al., 2006). This review suggested that lower stages of change associate
19. 12
with external motivation and higher stages linearly correlate with higher levels of
intrinsic motivation.
Although there is extensive research supporting positive linear correlations between
the stages of change model and the self-determination continuum, research
correlating the SDT with the FTPT in exercise is limited. A study by Gellbert et al.
(2011) found associations between FTP and stages of change but also found evidence
that age predicted the differences in FTP. When FTP is determined to be affected by
age, the operationalisation of FTP might contain errors because this indicates that FTP
cannot be altered. This study also focused on other healthy behaviours including
intake of vegetables and fruits. The lack of focus on exercise behaviour and FTP was
apparent in the analysis (Gellbert et al., 2011). Another correlational study by Wininger
and DeSena (2012) showed how the FTP correlated with stages of change, but the
exercise behaviour was not fully dissected as this study only considered intensity and
duration. Thus the current research aimed to fully consider all aspects of the TTM,
simply applying the SCQ as a tool to assist the analysis of current exercise behaviour
in order to support current levels of self-determination and naturally dominate time
perspective.
Self Determination Theory Applied in Research
Satisfaction of three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy and
relatedness determine the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is considered
self-motivated, classifying lower levels of motivation as extrinsic and higher levels as
intrinsic (Ryan and Deci, 2000). It has been found that merely supporting one of the
three elements of intrinsic motivation revealed promising outcomes (Wulf et al., 2014).
20. 13
In a study on learning outcomes in a classroom setting, Bilde et al. (2011) showed that
support for competence, and fostering an intrinsically motivated environment
increased learning outcomes of students. Wulf et al. (2014) created an experimental
study aimed to incorporate support for autonomy with an intervention strategy that
supported exercise behaviour. The results from this study showed that giving
individuals the choice of determining the order of an exercise sequence proved
advantageous. Participants that were given a choice completed 60% more repetitions
than the control group that were prescribed a sequence to follow (Wulf et al., 2014).
This study suggested that fulfilling the fundamental psychological necessity of
autonomy, levels of motivation increased significantly increased (Wulf et al., 2014).
Pelletier et al. (2001) found that greater levels of self-determined motivation occurred
when there was similar support for autonomy, demonstrating more persistence in
swimming attendance over an extended period of time. Yet another study by Wininger
and DeSena (2012) found strong correlations for identified, integrated and intrinsic
regulation with exercise duration and intensity, but lacked specifications for frequency
of exercise. Wininger and DeSena (2012) also used the SCQ to identify individuals
whom already have regular exercise habits to supplement the analysis of exercise
behaviour. These studies demonstrate how the application of the SDT can produce
desirable outcomes, though complete analysis of the quality and quantity of desired
exercise behaviour should be done in order to provide a more comprehensive
investigation completely incorporating all forms of self-determination.
Contrary to the popular belief that intrinsic forms of motivation will increase desired
behaviour, Edmunds et al., (2006) showed introjected regulation was a positive
predictor of strenuous exercise behaviour or intensity in individuals whom exercised
21. 14
regularly; though it was not clear from this research if this form of regulation was
sustainable over longer periods of time. On the other hand, a study by Pelletier et al.
(2001) was conducted over 22 months and found that after only 10 months,
introjected, integrated and intrinsic regulation were seen as positive predictors of
participation in a swimming program. However after 22 months only forms of
integrated and intrinsic regulation were seen as positive influences on participation.
This could indicate that participants were either previously classified as introjected and
converted to a more intrinsic form of motivation or dropped out of the program.
Another study by Vansteenkiste et al. (2004) on exercise participation found positive
correlations with more intrinsic forms of regulation and negative associations with
extrinsic motives. However, the BREQ-2 was used for analysis which only measured
five-items of the self-determination continuum instead of six. It can be difficult to
distinguish between identified and integrated regulation due to the slight difference in
definition, however it is necessary for research in order to prescribe suitably adapted
interventions (Mclachlan and Hagger, 2010). In a study by Wilson et al. (2006) on the
importance of integrated regulation in exercise, intensity of exercise was positively
correlated validating the inclusion of the integrated regulation as measured in the
BREQ-3 allowing for comprehensive investigation of the SDT (Markland and Tobin,
2004; Wilson et al., 2006).
A cross-sectional study conducted by Duncan et al. (2010) considered all aspects of
exercise behaviour associated to the SDT which had not been done in a single study.
Using the SCQ as a template Duncan et al. (2010) found intrinsic regulation to be a
positive predictor of duration, intensity and frequency as well as identified and
22. 15
integrated regulation being positive predictors of exercise frequency similar to
(Pelletier et al., 2001). Integrated regulation was only a strong predictor of exercise
duration and while introjected was only a positive predictor of exercise intensity
(Edmunds et al., 2006). Since the purpose of the current study was aimed to better
understand how to promote exercise over time, introjected regulation will not be
considered a constructive form of motivation.
Previous studies lack depth of consideration for full examination of exercise behaviour
as well as lack of attention for the entire continuum of the SDT (See Figure 2).
However, it has been documented that measuring the subtype of regulation on the
self-determined continuum and implementing intervention strategies which support
intrinsic motivation will allow for increases in exercise behaviours. Consideration for
the stages of change model also has been seen to allow for full dissection of current
exercise behaviour. Synonymously measuring frequency, duration and intensity
across the stages of change in relation the self-determined continuum has not been
done before. Thus this study will use the SDT and aim to identify the ideal motivational
mind-set and account for all areas of exercise behaviour across the stages of change.
Future Time Perspective Applied in Research
In addition to the SDT, the FTPT can be utilised to identify and promote an ideal
motivational outlook in order to encourage exercise behaviour. Previous research
indicates being more considerate of the future does allow for healthy behaviour
promotion (Bilde et al., 2011; Gellbert et al., 2011; Khana et al., 2005; Vansteenkiste
et al., 2004; Wininger and DeSena, 2012). There are different ways to measure FTP
23. 16
as well as aspects of the theory to consider that could have possibly been previously
misinterpreted (Guthrie et al., 2014; Ziegelmann et al., 2006).
A study on FTP conducted by Guthrie et al. (2014) found that in a group of individuals
aged 18-24 years old (with higher FTP scores) reported frequent exercise activity,
though this was not consistent in results within the groups of individuals aged 25-34
years or 35 years and older. This study assumed time perspective was fixed, which
could have led to a lack of evidence linking consideration for the future to exercise in
older populations. Similarly an intervention study by Ziegelmann et al. (2006)
measured patients in an orthopaedic rehabilitation centre with prescribed physical
activity and were measured for adherence to the program at 6 and 12 months after.
The study found that patients with a shorter FTP compared to those with a deeper FTP
had lower levels of planning and exercise goal attainment, but due to the ZTPI-F being
used to interpret FTP, these results should be interpreted with caution. A limitation of
these studies was the operationalisation of the FTP directly with the proximity to death
as determined by age, instead of using a measure to determine the consideration for
the future. The assumption that innate FTP leads to the assumed lack of ability should
be tailored when developing an intervention strategy.
An empirical study on adults aged 72 or older by Khana et al. (2005) also showed
deep future orientation of individuals who associated with higher levels of physical
exercise. Even though this study only considered a population of older adults, the
results showed higher FTP lead to less of a decrease in physical activity as compared
to less future oriented elderly (Khana et al., 2005). This study demonstrated how even
with limited lifespan, FTP can be an influential factor in exercise behaviour. A similar
24. 17
study on an elderly population by Gellbert et al. (2011) found that deeper levels of FTP
as specified by planning lead to healthier behaviours over a 4 month period. The
results showed that in older adults (60-95 years) FTP was considerably lower than
compared to younger adults (16-78 years), but found planning considerably reduced
unhealthy behaviours. This study also shows how FTP can be altered even in older
adults, however it lacked depth when exploring SDT and all aspects of exercise
behaviour. The study by Ziegelmann et al. (2006) also lacked consideration of other
theories as shown by the methods including the choice to prescribe of physical activity
because this could subsequently alter intrinsic motivation by affecting autonomy (Wulf
et al., 2014). A study by Hall et al. (2003) demonstrated that having a deeper FTP
increased exercise behaviour when an intervention was set in place to condition
participants to be more conscious of the future, but again the methods created an
issue with consideration for the SDT.
To date, research measuring the SDT and FTPT simultaneously within the exercise
science discipline is limited. A study by Vansteenkiste et al. (2004) found after
operationalising self-determination as intrinsic or extrinsic and FTP as goals setting,
individuals with consistent exercise behaviours were intrinsically goal oriented while
those without goals were extrinsically motivated. In this experimental study
manipulating components of both the SDT and FTP, the correlations between cause
and effect could be easily misconstrued. This is because it is a challenge to
operationalise variables from complex theories with many characteristics to consider.
For example, the interpretation of self-determination as intrinsic and extrinsic
constrains this six facet continuum by operationalising it with only two possibilities
(Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). This study does produce valuable findings by addressing
25. 18
the combination of the SDT and FTPT affecting exercise behaviour. However because
it does not consider how pre-existing dominate time perspectives of individuals can
affect exercise involvement this study will consider those in order to make
recommendations for current perspectives.
Studies show how FTP can be used to identify an ideal motivational mentality and
altered to promote exercise behaviour which can be useful in the practical application
of prescribing exercise interventions; nonetheless there is still lack evidence to support
manageable FTP while considering self-determined motives and all areas of exercise
behaviour (Bilde et al., 2011; Gellbert et al., 2011; Guthrie et al., 2014; Vansteenkiste
et al., 2004; Wininger and DeSena, 2012). In order to account for this, the methods of
this study will interpret time perspective as transformable based on the assumption
that decisional balance can convert current behaviours and benefit exercise
behaviour. This will allow individuals with limited time perspectives to be conditioned
to increase exercise behaviour in any age group across the stages of change model.
Study Aim
Throughout the aforementioned research there is a lack of completeness creating
gaps in knowledge of motivational factors that influence an individual's exercise
behaviour:
1. Current research on FTP lacks consideration for how existing differences in time
perspectives transmit to different levels of exercise.
26. 19
2. The SDT lacks full analysis of all subtypes, more specifically the internal forms of
regulation (identified, integrated, intrinsic) and relation to current levels of exercise
behaviour.
3. Full analysis of all areas of exercise behaviour (intensity, duration, frequency)
across the stages of change model.
There is yet to be a single study incorporating all of the elements from the TTM, FTPT
and SDT therefore this creates the rational and justification for the focus of the present
study. Incorporation of exercise into an individual’s lifestyle is an active process
facilitated by constantly monitoring motivation strategies in order to encourage
continued exercise behaviour and avoid regression back to previous stages or
extrinsic forms of regulation (Duncan et al., 2010; Ingledew et al., 2004). Thus the aim
of the current research will be to identify how FTP and self-determination relate to
higher levels of exercise behaviour. More specifically, the aim will be to positively
correlate higher levels of exercise behaviour (intensity, duration and frequency), future
time perspective orientation(CFC-F) and more intrinsic forms of self-determination
(identified, integrated and intrinsic) with the later stages of change (action and
maintenance). The purpose of the findings will facilitate identification of an ideal
motivational mind-set considering three theories in order to promote continuous
healthy behaviour.
Study Objectives
1. Measure exercise duration, frequency, intensity, self-determination, time
perspective and stages of change.
27. 20
2. Identify relationships between variables by determining the significance of
associations across the stages of change model.
3. Recognise the ideal type of self-determination, time perspective orientation in order
to promote healthy levels of exercise behaviour.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested throughout this study:
1. There will be a positive relationship between higher levels of exercise duration,
frequency and intensity associated with later the stages of change.
2. There will be a positive linear relationship between more intrinsic forms of motivation
and later stages of change.
3. There will be a positive relationship between deeper FTP and later stages of
change.
Null Hypothesis
There will be no relationship between the stage of change model and exercise
behaviours, self-determination or future time perspective.
28. 21
Study Design
In order to meet the time constraints set by the study, the researcher has devised a
project schedule (Appendix 1). This study uses a quantitative methodology requiring
participants to complete questionnaires after being recruited via a post on Edinburgh
Napier University Facebook wall as approved by the Online Content Co-Ordinator of
External Relations and Communications at Edinburgh Napier University. The post
included a link to SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.co.uk, California, USA) and
invited participants to complete a survey “assisting an honours project on motivation
for exercise participation.” The first page of the questionnaire was the information
sheet and consent form (Appendix 8).
The link to the survey was activated starting February 1st 2015 until February 27th
2015. Each participant completed a questionnaire randomly assigned in the following
order: the modified SCQ (Ingledew et al., 1998) (Appendix 2), the CFC-14 (Joireman
et al., 2012) (Appendix 3), the BREQ-3 (Markland and Tobin, 2004; Wilson et al., 2006)
(Appendix 4), and the modified LTEQ (Godin and Shephard, 1997) (Appendix 5). Each
of the questionnaires started on a new page for a total of 6 pages including the
debriefing sheet as the last page (Appendix 6) and the participant information/consent
form (Appendix 8). At the completion of the survey, a summary of the study was
provided and participants were encouraged to contact the researcher with further
questions about the results (Coolican, 2014).
29. 22
Methods
Ethical approval was granted from the Faculty of Health, Life and Social Sciences at
Napier University and risk assessment approval from Dr. Gordon Baillie of the School
of Life, Sport and Social Sciences (Appendix 7). Data collection began after the project
plan was approved by the project supervisor Dr. Tony Westbury. Constant
communication with the project supervisor allowed for this study to be complete with
thoroughly considerate, up to date methodology and minimal obstacles.
Participants
Participants (n = 125 males; n = 140 females) (age: 26 ± 8.8yrs) were recruited for this
study from the Edinburgh Napier University Facebook page through voluntary
participation. All willing, consenting participants were asked to complete the
questionnaires (Appendix 8). No exclusions were made, except participants must have
been over the age of 18 in order to agree with the ethical guidelines assigned to this
research. Participants were asked to report their age and gender on the BREQ-3 page
so the researcher could make conclusions regarding external validity.
Stages of Change Questionnaire
The participants’ readiness to exercise was categorised by the SCQ (Ingledew et al.,
1998) (Appendix 2). Exercise behaviour was reported using a five-category measure
in which each statements aligned with the current stage in the model (Ingledew et al.,
1998). In order to control for discrepancies in definitions of “regular exercise”, the
questionnaire was modified to define a healthy level of exercise behaviour “as 30
minutes five times a week or 20 minutes of vigorous-intense exercise three times a
week (Haskell et al., 2007).” This modification was approved by the project supervisor
30. 23
prior to the collection of data. The questionnaire asked participants to choose between
five statements according to which best described them: ‘‘I currently do not exercise
regularly, and I am not thinking of doing so for at least the next six months’’ (pre
contemplation);; ‘‘I currently do not exercise regularly, but I am thinking of doing so
sometime in the next six months’’ (contemplation);; ‘‘I currently do not exercise
regularly, but I am taking active steps to do so in the very near future’’ (preparation);;
‘‘I currently exercise regularly, but I have only begun doing so within the last six
months’’ (action);; and ‘‘I currently exercise regularly, and I have done so for longer
than six months’’ (maintenance) (Ingledew et al., 1998). No calculations were required
and each statement directly matched with a stage within the stages of change model.
This questionnaire was deemed valid in a recent study showing Cronbach's alpha
coefficients between 0.781-0.960 (Andrés et al., 2011).
Consideration of Future Consequences Scale-14
FTP as measured by the CFC-14 used 14 questions to measure an individual’s
consideration of future consequences (CFC-F) and immediate consequences (CFC-I)
on a scale of one (extremely uncharacteristic) to seven (extremely characteristic)
where higher scores correlated with higher consideration of future consequences
(Joireman et al., 2012). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients scores were determined to
between 0.80-0.84 (Joireman et al., 2012).
Examples of CFC-F statements include: “Often I engage in a particular behaviour in
order to achieve outcomes that may not result for many years” and “I am willing to
sacrifice my immediate happiness or well-being in order to achieve future outcomes”.
Examples of CFC-I include: “I generally ignore warnings about possible future
31. 24
problems because I think the problems will be resolved before they reach crisis level”
and “I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring the future will take care of itself”.
Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-3
BREQ-3 was used to assess the degree of an individual’s self-determination including:
external, introjected, identified, integrated, intrinsic, and amotivational regulation
(Markland and Tobin, 2004; Wilson et al., 2006). Participants were also asked to rate
statements on a five-point scale ranging from 0 (not true for me) to 4 (very true for
me). The BREQ-3 was used for this study because of the added subscale for
integrated regulation created by Wilson et al. (2006). The additional subscale follows
the same format of the BREQ-2 using a five-point Likert-type scale rating integrated
regulation specifically to sport and exercise activities including: “I fully accept exercise
as an activity which is truly my own” and “doing exercise is a fundamental part of who
I am”. This addition created the BREQ-3 scale and was found to have structural validity
with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients scores reported ranging from 0.70-0.92 (Wilson et
al., 2006).
The BREQ-3 can be used either as a multidimensional instrument giving separate
scores for each subscale, or as a unidimensional index showing the degree of self-
determination, known as the relative autonomy index (RAI) (Ryan and Connell, 1989).
This study used the RAI choice of scoring because it was determined to be most
beneficial for the intended statistical analyses. The RAI is a single score derived from
the subscales reporting the degree of self-determination (Ryan and Connell, 1989).
The calculations occurred after weighting each questions on a subscale, then
summing these weighted scores (Wilson et al., 2006). Higher, positive scores
32. 25
indicated greater internal regulation while lower, negative scores indicate more
extrinsic regulation (Markland and Tobin, 2004).
The Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire
The Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ) was used to assess
participants self-reported exercise intensity, frequency and duration (Godin and
Shephard, 1997). The first question allowed for intensity to be reported by asking
participants: “During a typical 7-Day period, how many times on the average do you
do the following kinds of exercise for more than 15 minutes during your free time” with
a list of three types of activities classified as: “strenuous exercise (heart beats rapidly)”,
“moderate exercise (not exhausting)” or “mild exercise (minimal effort)” (Godin and
Shephard, 1997). Each type of activity provided examples to allow for consistency
between participants interpretation of effort levels. The participant reported frequency
of mild, moderate and strenuous activity as considered by heart beating rapidly, not
exhausting or minimal effort for at least 15 minutes during a typical week (Godin and
Shephard, 1997). A composite score was reported to sum each exercise intensity
according: (mild × 3) + (moderate × 5) + (strenuous× 9) (Duncan et al., 2010). The
result for intensity was reported as a weekly units of metabolic equivalence (METS)
value (Duncan et al., 2010). The second question was used to calculate the frequency
of activities considered “long enough to work up a sweat “classified and reported as
“often, sometimes or never/rarely” (Godin and Shephard, 1997). A third question
(following the same format) was added in order to provide a score for total duration of
moderate and strenuous physical activity during a week. This was done by asking the
participant to report the total number of minutes they exercise weekly. This alteration
was approved by the project supervisor before the study commenced. The reliability
33. 26
of this questionnaire was deemed acceptable with the Cronbach's alpha coefficients
at 0.83 and 0.85 (Godin and Shephard, 1997).
Procedure
A link to Survey Monkey with the six page questionnaire was posted on the Edinburgh
Napier University Facebook page live from 1st - 27th February 2015. The four
inventories were embedded into one questionnaire on Survey Monkey randomly,
which each participant were asked to complete in one session. The entire procedure
was estimated to be completed in approximately 20 minutes, however no limit was
administered. Once the link was activated by a participant the questionnaire required
completion or results would not be deemed valid (Wininger and DeSena, 2012). Only
fully completed questionnaires were used for data analysis, however all participants
were reported in the results (Markland and Tobin, 2004).
Controls and Considerations
Originally the procedure required for an electronic invitation to be sent randomly to
2,000 recipients on the mail directory for Edinburgh Napier University. However, after
being denied access to the email list from the Edinburgh Napier marketing department
the procedure was altered as per supervisor approval. As suggested by the Online
Content Co-ordinator for External Relations and Communications a post on the
Edinburgh Napier University Facebook wall was created to ask for participants. It must
be accepted that this recruitment method limited the generalisability of findings due to
the lack of diversity in participant involvement. However due to time constraints and
resources this strategy will be best suitable solution. All data for the participants was
autotomized and all participants completed the inventories in the same order with the
34. 27
response methods in each measure will be fixed to ensure consistent and coherent
data. Measures were taken to clarify “regular exercise” in the SCQ to ensure
consistency between subjects. Any questions from the participants regarding the study
were answered by the researcher in a timely manner to facilitate accurately complete
questionnaires. These controls and adaptations measured the quantitative data as
relevant as possible to each study question. In the LTEQ section of the questionnaire,
responses for the total exercise minutes were reformatted to minutes if it was
answered in hours.
Data Analysis
Data was analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software
version 16. Exploratory data analysis was completed to find patterns between the
variables. Correlations were made between stage of change (SCQ) and: duration,
frequency, METS, RAI (BREQ-3) and CFC-I/CFC-F (CFC-14). In order to account for
statistical significance, two tests were administered, including Pearson’s chi-squared
test applied to a contingency test and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Stages of change were compared across a crosstabs test on all the variables across
the SCQ including frequency, intensity, BREQ-3 and CFC-14 scores. A Chi-squared
test for goodness of fit was conducted with a validity of α =0.05. ANOVA was used to
investigate the how METS and weekly duration of exercise behaviour correlated to
SCQ.
Costs
The study was funded by Edinburgh Napier University covering the cost of one month
(1st-27th February 2015) using the ‘Survey Monkey’ select service (£26) (Appendix 9).
35. 28
Data Storage
The data was protected by keeping all questionnaires secure between completion and
translation (Appendix 10). All data was securely password protected when stored on
both ‘Survey Monkey’ and on a USB storage drive. Following the completion of the
study, all data was destroyed in accordance with Edinburgh Napier University
regulations.
Potential Risks
Internal risk assessment approval from Dr Gordon Baillie confirmed the risks of the
study to be minimal. The only consideration was standard display screen equipment
risks, which were controlled for by the researcher ensuring that the display screen
equipment was not used for excessive durations. Frequent breaks allowed for rest and
recovery from using display screen equipment. The researcher in addition ensured the
display screen, was kept at a suitable distance from the eyes to avoid irritation.
Participants were made aware of display screen equipment hazards before completion
of the survey (Appendix 8).
Possible Outcomes
The predicted outcome of this study assumed that higher levels of exercise behaviour
(intensity, duration and frequency), deeper FTP, and intrinsic forms of self-
determination would correlate with later stages of change. The findings aim to support
a better understanding of motivation for exercise from different disciplines namely the
two theories of FTPT and SDT. There have been studies on how each theory
correlates positively with exercise behaviour, however no studies have been done to
support a relationship with extensive measurements of exercise behaviour. The
36. 29
objective of this study was identify the ideal motivational mentality through utilisation
of the FTPT and SDT to allow recommendations to be made for promoting an ideal
motivational climate in order to change attitudes and adhere to a healthy exercise
lifestyle. Later stages of changes will allow for a basis of comparing these variables.
Results
Participants (n = 125 males; n = 140 females) were recruited for this study from the
Edinburgh Napier University Facebook page through voluntary participation. It should
be noted that not all questionnaires were included for analysis due to lack of
completion (n=147 males; n=163 females) (Markland and Tobin, 2004). An ANOVA
was used to investigate how the METS and duration of exercise correlated to SCQ
(p<0.05). Also a post hoc analysis (using α of 0.05) was conducted across the stages
of change for METS and duration. Finally a crosstabs test was done across the SCQ
for frequency, BREQ-3 and CFC-14 scores. In all sections of the results the SCQ
directly correlates with the stages of change model in ascending order from 1-5
(1=precontemplation, 2=contemplation, 3=preparation, 4=action, 5=maintenance).
Exercise Behaviour
Three data points for duration of exercise were removed from the sample due to
concern of the outlining data determined to be inaccurately reported data by the
participant. After inspecting skew, kurtosis and Shapiro-Wilk statistics indicated the
assumption of normality for each condition. Analysis revealed the stages of change
correlated with frequency of exercise scores showing a relationship between all
comparisons (Table 1). The p-value determined to be significantly different: X2 (20,
N=265) = 485.182a, p<.001.
37. 30
Frequency of Exercise and the Stages of Change
Table 1: Mean data for exercise frequency across the stages of change model. Frequency was
displayed as a range of 1-3, 1=extremely frequent, 2=frequent and 3=not frequent. Significant
differences were indicated by asterisk (p<0.05).
Frequency
SCQ 1 2 3
1 0.00% 0.00% 0.75%
2 0.00% 0.00% 3.77%*
3 0.00% 4.15%* 9.43%*
4 9.43%* 11.70%* 0.00%
5 56.60%* 3.77% 0.38%
Duration of Exercise and the Stages of Change
Figure 3: Asterisk indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level. Duration is measured in total minutes
per week and compared along each level on the SCQ detailed with SD error bars.
*
*
38. 31
Figure 3 compared stages of change with duration of exercise and showed significant
differences between precontemplation and maintenance (.001). Also significant
differences were seen between contemplation compared to action (.000) and
maintenance (.000). As well as between preparation and action (.000), maintenance
(.000).
Intensity of Exercise and the Stages of Change
Figure 4: Asterisk indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level. METS was calculated using a
formula from the LTEQ, with higher scores associating with more strenuous exercise and lower scores
are mild activity. METS was compared along each level on the SCQ detailed with SD error bars.
*
*
39. 32
Figure 4 presented associations between the stages of change and METS. A post hoc
analysis with Tukey’s (using α of 0.05) showed significant differences between the
action (.000) and maintenance (.000) phases compared to the precontemplation,
contemplation and preparation.
Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-3
Comparing SCQ with BREQ-3, self-determined regulation scores was classified by the
RAI (1=amotivation, 2=external regulation, 3=introjected regulation, 4=identified
regulation, 5=integrated regulation, 6=intrinsic regulation). All data was presented as
percentages with all data determined significant, X2 (8, N=265) = 276.070, p<.001. It
can be concluded that there are significance in later stages across all forms of
regulations for self-determination (Table 2).
Self-Determination and the Stages of Change
Table 2: Mean data for SCQ and BREQ-3 for all participants, with significant differences indicated by
the asterisk (p<0.05).
BREQ-3
SCQ 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0.38% 0.38% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
2 0.00% 1.89% 1.89% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
3 0.00% 2.64% 10.94%* 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
4 0.00% 0.38% 2.64% 12.07%* 1.50% 4.53%
5 0.00% 0.00% 0.38% 2.26% 19.25%* 38.87%*
40. 33
Consideration of Future Consequences-14
Comparing stages of change with FTP as operationalised by the CFC-14. With the p-
value determined to be statically significant, X2 (4, N=265) = 208.734, p<.001. CFC-
14 scores account for immediate (CFC-I) and future considerations (CFC-F).
Time Perspective and the Stages of Change
Table 3: Mean data for the SCQ and CFC-14 for immediate (1=CFC-I) and future considerations
(2=CFC-F). Significance was indicated for all comparisons with an asterisk indicating the dominate
orientation for the stage (p<0.05).
CFC-14
SCQ 1 2
1 0.75%* 0.00%
2 3.70%* 0.00%
3 11.70%* 1.80%
4 0.75% 20.00%*
5 0.75% 60.00%*
Discussion
There were three hypotheses considered in this study. Hypothesis 1: There would be
a positive relationship between higher levels of exercise duration, frequency and
intensity associated with later stages of change. Hypothesis 2: There would be a
positive linear relationship between intrinsic motivation and later stages of change.
Hypothesis 3: There would be a positive relationship between higher FTP and later
stages of change. The results allowed for the null hypothesis to be rejected due to the
41. 34
significance of the results supporting a relationship between the stages of change and
all variables. The extent of support of the hypotheses will be indicated in the following
sections by the analysis and interpretation of specific relationships between variables.
Conclusions, recommendations for future research and practical application of the
results will be discussed as well.
It can be concluded that there is significance in the results across the stages of change
for exercise frequency. Table 1 shows extremely frequent exercisers were
significantly more often in the maintenance phase of exercise at 56.60% with only
3.77% as frequent just 0.38% as infrequent. It also shows 11.70% of frequent
exerciser to be in the action phase with an additional 9.43% of participants reporting
exercising extremely frequently and 0.00% exercise infrequently (Table 1). The
preparation phase was mostly associated with infrequent exercise at 9.43% with only
4.15% being frequent exercisers and 0.00% as extremely frequent. These results
allow conclusions to be drawn about the stages of change, associating the later stages
of action and maintenance with more frequent exercise and preparation being more
strongly associated with infrequent. Thus it can be concluded there is a relationship
across the stages of change model correlating with the frequency of exercise
behaviour.
The results concerning duration and stages of change show there were significant
differences between precontemplation and maintenance (.001) (Figure 3). Also
significant differences were seen between contemplation compared to action (.000)
and maintenance (.000). This was also true for responses between preparation and
action (.000), maintenance (.000). The results allow for the conclusion that there is
42. 35
significance in the results across the stages of change for duration of exercise in the
action and maintenance phases (as indicated within Figure 3 by an asterisk).
Figure 4 illustrated a positive linear association with increased METS across the
stages of change model. The analysis showed significant differences between the
action (.000) and maintenance (.000) phases compared to the precontemplation,
contemplation and preparation. The action and maintenance phases are significantly
different from the earlier stages of change across all three aspects of exercise
behaviour. This leads to support of the first hypothesis due to later stages of change
being significantly different from earlier stages and action and maintenance phases
being associated with longer durations, increased frequency and higher intensity.
Although this correlation was established by Spencer et al. (2006), these findings will
allow for correlations to be drawn within this study regarding exercise behaviour and
the self-determination continuum and time perspective through the stages of change
model.
The results of this study aimed to fill gaps of previous research by showing complete
evidence correlating intrinsic regulation and fully dissected exercise behaviours while
considering a variety of theories (Edmunds et al., 2006; Pelletier et al., 2001;
Vansteenkiste et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2006). Consistent with reviewed studies,
Table 2 displayed statistical significance between later stages of change and more
intrinsic forms of regulation partially supporting the second hypothesis (Duncan et al.,
2010; Wininger and DeSena, 2012).
43. 36
In the maintenance phase 38.87% of participants had intrinsic regulation, 19.25% had
integrated regulation, 2.26% had identified regulation, 0.38% had introjected and
0.00% were externally motivated or amotivated (See Table 2). This shows intrinsic
regulation was most positively correlated with the maintenance phase and
subsequently with higher levels of exercise behaviours (See Table 1; Figure 3, 4).
These findings were similar to the study conducted by Duncan et al. (2010) which
showed all components of exercise behaviour were positively associated with intrinsic
regulation. Also Wininger and DeSena (2012) found similar results with intrinsic
regulation correlating most positively with exercise behaviours followed subsequently
by integrated and identified regulation. Duncan et al. (2010) also found that identified
and integrated regulations were positive predictors of exercise frequency, with
integrated regulation being the strongest predictor of exercise duration.
In the action phase 4.53% had intrinsic regulation, 1.50% had integrated regulation,
12.07% had identified regulation, 2.64% had introjected, 0.38% had extrinsic
regulation and 0.00% were amotivated (Table 2). With identified regulation being the
most highly correlated with the action phase it can concluded that identified regulation
is useful form of motivation in exercise behaviour. This suggests that individuals are
more likely to engage in longer bouts of physical activity if they feel that exercising is
consistent with their identity. However due to identified regulation only being
associated with the action phase of the stages of change, it will not be considered as
strong of a motivational influence for continued exercise as integrated and intrinsic
being the most dominant in this aspect. The lack of results for integrated regulation in
the action phase is worth noting, however it reiterated that 19.25% of participants had
integrated regulation in the maintenance phase (Table 2). In a study by Wilson et al.
44. 37
(2006) the importance of integrated regulation was considered one of the highest
levels of motivation on the self-determined spectrum, just below intrinsic regulation.
This is clear in the difference in the results that there were significantly higher levels
of exercise in the maintenance phase as compared to the action phase. The results of
this study confirm the significance of integrated regulation in the prediction of regular
physical activity, consistent with previous literature (Wilson et al., 2006; Duncan et al.,
2010).
Though Duncan et al. (2010) and Edmunds et al. (2006) found introjection as a positive
predictor of exercise intensity, there were no correlations for frequency or duration.
Results indicate 10.94% of participants had introjected regulation and were in the
preparation phase (Table 2). To review, report did not consider introjected regulation
as valuable due to the lack of support for benefiting exercise frequency and duration
(Pelletier et al., 2001). Although the preparation phase can lead to progression into
the action phase, due to the association with extrinsic motivation it is not suitable for
assisting development (Pelliter et al., 2001). Supporting intrinsic forms of motivation
would be most beneficial for exercise over time; this claim has been well established
(Bilde et al., 2011; Duncan et al., 2010; Pelletier et al., 2001; Vansteenkiste et al.,
2004; Wininger and DeSena, 2012). However for future research it may be interesting
to consider if introjected regulation could lead to progression through the stages of
change with support of a future time perspective in an experimental design.
While we know that future oriented thinkers are more likely than short-term orientated
to engage in health protective behaviours (Adams, 2009; Hall et al., 2003;
Horstmanshof and Zimitat, 2007). In this study, Table 1 showed how CFC-F was
45. 38
significantly correlated with existing high levels of exercise behaviour. Similar to
Wininger and DeSena (2012) this study found a significantly greater amount of
participants in the CFC-F category and later stages of change (Action, CFC-F=
20.00%, CFC-I=0.75%) (Maintenance, CFC-F=60.00%, CFC-I= 0.75%) as compared
to a significantly greater amount of CFC-I categorised participants in the earlier stages
(Precontemplation, CFC-F= 0.00%, CFC-I= 0.75%) (Contemplation, CFC-F= 0.00%,
CFC-I=3.70%) (Preparation, CFC-F=1.80%, CFC-I=11.70%). These results verify that
in the later stages of change, FTP is more dominate and can be linked to regular
exercises in the maintenance phase. These results show how FTP is correlated with
later stages of change and thus increased levels of exercise behaviour supporting the
third hypothesis.
These results parallel and support studies by Joireman et al. (2012) and Vansteenkiste
et al. (2004), illustrating that higher FTP was associated with higher levels of exercise
behaviour. Similar to the study conducted by Vansteenkiste et al. (2004) finding future
intrinsic regulation was a positive predictor of exercise behaviour as opposed to future
content-free. Joireman et al. (2012) also determined CFC-F correlated with higher
levels of exercise behaviour. It is important to note the current study considered the
issue of FTP not merely being directly linked with increasing in age (Khana et al., 2005;
Ziegelmann et al., 2006).
Measuring the FTPT and the SDT in relation to one another considering exercise has
only been done in two studies which have either implemented aspects of both theories
or measured them as separate features (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004; Wininger and
DeSena, 2012). In research conducted by Vansteenkiste et al. (2004), aspects from
46. 39
both theories were applied into an experimental design and evidently found that FTP
could be manipulated as a tool to promote exercise behaviour by setting intrinsic or
extrinsic goals. The results showed applying the principles of the SDT and FTPT could
produce beneficial outcomes, however this study lacked in-depth analysis of self-
determination subtypes (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). Wininger and DeSena (2012)
found correlations between future-orientated individuals and intrinsic, integrated and
identified regulation. These results align with the results from this study, measuring
the two theories independently in order to account for accidental manipulation of
results. The results from this study show that later stages associate with deeper FTP
and more intrinsic forms of motivation were significantly associated with higher levels
of exercise behaviour. This can allow for conclusions to be drawn and
recommendations for practical applications deemed appropriate.
Critique of Methods and Future Research
Throughout this study, every opportunity to control internal validity was taken by
verifying questionnaires to be suitable for targeting the research aim. An unforeseen
unmanageable point to consider in this study is the skew of results with little
information on amotivated individuals. Although the questionnaire was presented to
the general public, due to the title including “motivation” and “exercise” the recruitment
may have been skewed towards actively motivated individuals completing the
questionnaires. Fortunately this study was aimed at encouraging individuals to
exercise, thus the collection of more data concerning active individuals was beneficial.
Controlling for this is not possible under ethical approval guidelines informing the
participant of the study. Thus for future studies active recruitment could help to
promote the inclusion of inactive individuals in order to provide strong correlations with
47. 40
more external forms of regulation and lower future time perspectives. Recruitment of
inactive individuals for active studies is unfortunately the most difficult; therefore,
specific strategies need to be developed and used to facilitate their recruitment in
accordance with ethical standards. However the aim of this study was to determine if
individuals with higher FTP, intrinsic motivation in the later stages of change had
increased exercise behaviour so the recruitment population was deemed suitable.
Although extensive measures were taken in order to control for validity, there were
some unavoidable variables that could not be accounted for. In this case, age was not
considered an issue for external validity because participant were approximately (age:
26±8.8yrs) that the findings of this study could be applied to a broader population of
adults. This was supported with the previous study by Khana et al. (2005) on older
adults aged 72 or older and concluded FTP correlated with higher exercise behaviour.
Another weakness of the study design was that this study was not longitudinal thus
conclusions regarding continued motivation can only be speculated from previous
research and the SCQ because individuals self-assess how long they have been
currently committed to exercise participation. However due to the exercise behaviour
measurements as well as motivation questionnaires all being self-reported, this
creates an issue of consistency (Duncan et al., 2010). An objective measure for
exercise behaviour or biometric data would be valuable in future research in order to
strengthen the findings of this study. The observational design of this research should
also be noted as a weakness. Some journals will not accept a cross-sectional study
designs for publications so a large well-designed randomised control trial would allow
for conclusions to be considered more seriously.
48. 41
Future research should also account for the lack of depth considered directly with the
TTM. The components of the TTM that have been found to affect exercise behaviour
are the stage of change, processes of change, decisional balance, self-efficacy, and
possibility of relapse (Spencer et al., 2006).The SCQ is often considered an
oversimplified model but it was still determined to be useful when subsidised with other
measurements (Littell and Girvin, 2002; Spencer et al., 2006). The SCQ only accounts
for one element and although the BREQ-3 and CFC-14 accounted for the other
aspects, this was done indirectly. Thus in future research, the TTM should be explored
directly in more depth in order to enhance the findings of this study.
Practical Application
The findings from this study will allow for better understanding of motivation behind
exercise considering the FTPT and SDT. These results will also allow for promotion
and preservation of exercise motivations for adults whom already exercise regularly.
This study could allow for exercise professionals to be able to identify current client
status through full analysis of the participants’ psychological status and relationship
with exercise motivation. The professionals would then be able to prescribe a fitness
program tailored to an individual's motivational levels, allowing for a streamlined
progression to later stages of change. Practitioners would be well-advised to
encourage their clients to integrate exercise as a part of their self-identity. For
example, assisting in changing a person’s mind-set from self-identified an exerciser to
referring to themselves as an “exerciser” would push them towards integrated
regulation. Further support would allow them to progress to intrinsic regulation by
supporting all elements of intrinsic regulation of autonomy, relatedness and
competence stimulating their desire to learn, accomplish and experience (Ryan and
49. 42
Deci, 2000). This should be done with interwoven concepts of the FTPT including
assisting a participant to focus on future intrinsic goals (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). In
order to promote exercise behaviour and progression to the most ideal stage, all three
aspects should support FTP, as well as intrinsic regulation to push an exerciser to the
maintenance phase in the stages of change model. Considering how amotivated
exercisers behave, future research could develop strategies for progression through
the self-determination continuum and the stages of change model.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify the ideal type of self-determination and time
perspective orientation in order to promote healthy levels of exercise behaviour. Prior
to this research, there was yet to be a comprehensive study conducted that recognised
an ideal time perspective orientation across the self-determined continuum as
independent influences on existing exercise behaviour. The results suggest that there
was a positive relationship between higher levels of exercise duration, frequency and
intensity in association with later stages of change. Later stages also correlated as
well as intrinsic forms of motivation and deeper FTP.
With equivocal results from previous studies it can be recommended that both the SDT
and FTPT should be considered when creating an exercise intervention program. This
will allow for appropriate intervention strategies to be suggested and implemented to
promote exercise of adults. It has been noted that more participants should be
recruited for future research from the earlier stages of change to support these findings
as well.
50. 43
References
Adams, J. and White, M. (2002). Are activity promotion interventions based on the
transtheoretical model effective? A critical review, British Journal of Sports Medicine.
37, pp. 106-114.
Adams, J. and White, M. (2005). Why don’t stage-based activity promotion
interventions work? Health Education Research. 20(2), pp. 237-243.
Adams, J. (2009). The mediating role of time perspective in socio-economic
inequalities in smoking and physical activity in older English adults, Journal of Health
Psychology. 14(6), pp. 794-799.
Andrés, A., Saldaña, C. and Gómez-Benito, J. (2011). The trans-theoretical model in
weight management: validation of the processes of change questionnaire, The
European Journal of Obesity. 4(6) pp. 433-442.
Bardisa-Ezcurra, L., Ullman, R. and Gordon, J. (2009). Diagnosis and management of
idiopathic childhood constipation: summary of NICE guidance, British Journal of
Sports Medicine. 340, pp. 2528-2629.
Bilde, J.E., Vansteenkiste, M. and Lens, W. (2011). Understanding the association
between future time perspective and self-regulated learning through the lens of self-
determination theory, Learning and Instruction. 21(2), pp. 332-344.
Blair, S. (2009). Physical inactivity: the biggest public health problem of the 21st
century, British Journal of Sports Medicine. 43(1), pp.1-2.
Blissmer, B. and McAuley, E. (2002). Testing the requirements of stages of physical
activity among adults: The comparative effectiveness of stage-matched, mismatched,
51. 44
standard care, and control interventions, Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 24(3), pp.
181-189.
Coolican, H. (2014). Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. 6th edition.
London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd.
Daley, A.J. and Duda, J.L. (2006). Self-determination, stage of readiness to change
for exercise, and frequency of physical activity in young people, European Journal of
Sport Science. 6(4), pp. 231-243.
De Bourdeauhuij, I.D., Philippaerts, R., Crombez, G., Matton, L., Wijndaele, K.,
Balduck, A. and Lefevre, J. (2005). Stages of change for physical activity in a
community sample of adolescents, Health Education Research. 20(3), pp. 357-366.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behaviour. New York: Plenum.
De Volder, M. and Lens, W. (1982). Academic achievement and future time
perspective as a cognitive-motivational concept, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. 42, pp. 566-571.
Duncan, L.R., Hall, C.R., Wilson, P.M. and Jenny, O. (2010). Exercise motivation: a
cross-sectional analysis examining its relationships with frequency, intensity, and
duration of exercise, International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical
Activity. 7(7), pp. 1-9.
Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N. and Duda, J.L. (2006). Examining exercise dependence
symptomology from a self-determination perspective, Journal of Health Psychology.
11, pp. 887-903.
52. 45
Gellbert, P., Ziegelmann, J.P., Lippke, S. and Schwarzer, R. (2012). Future time
perspective and health behaviors: Temporal framing of self-regulatory processes in
physical exercise and dietary behaviors, Annals of Behavioural Medicine. 43(2), pp.
208-218.
Godin, G. and Shephard, R.J. (1997). Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire,
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29, pp. 36-38.
Guthrie, L.C., Butler, S.C., Lessl, K. Ochi, O. and Ward, M.M. (2014). Time perspective
and exercise, obesity, and smoking: moderation of associations by age, American
Journal of Health Promotion. 29(1), pp. 9-16.
Hall, S., Peter, A. and Geoffrey, T. (2003). The effects of a brief time perspective
intervention for increasing physical activity among young adults, Psychology and
Health. 18(6), pp. 685-706.
Hart, T. and Jacobs H.E. (1993). Rehabilitation and management of behavioral
disturbances following frontal lobe injury, Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. 8,
pp. 1-12.
Haskell, L., Lee, I., Pate, R.R., Powell, K.E., Blair, S.E., Franklin, B.A., Macera, C.A.,
Heath, G.W., Thompson, P.D. and Bauman, A. (2007). Physical activity and public
health: Updated recommendation for adults from the American college of sports
medicine and the American heart association, Journal of the American College of
Sports Medicine. 39(8), pp. 1423-1434.
Horstmanshof, L. and Zimitat, C. (2007). Future time orientation predicts academic
engagement among first-year university students, British Journal of Educational
Psychology. 77(3), pp. 703-718.
53. 46
Ingledew, D.K., Markland, D. and Medley, A.R. (1998). Exercise motives and stages
of change, Journal of Health Psychology. 3(4), pp. 477-489.
Ingledew, D.K., Markland, D. and Shephard, K.E. (2004). Personality and self-
determination of exercise behaviour, Personality and Individual Differences. 36, pp.
1921–1932.
Joireman, J., Shaffer, M., Balliet, D. and Strathman, A. (2012). Promotion orientation
explains why future oriented people exercise and eat healthy: Evidence from the two-
factor consideration of future consequences 14 scale, Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin. 38, pp. 1272-1287.
Khana, E., Khana, B. and Zhang, J. (2005). Motivational antecedents of preventive
proactivity in late life: linking future orientation and exercise, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology. 29(4), pp. 438-459.
Li, F. (1999). The Exercise Motivation Scale: It’s multifaceted structure and construct
validity, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 11, pp. 97-115.
Littell, J. and Girvin, H. (2002). Stages of change: A critique, Behavioural Modification
Journal. 26 (2), pp. 223-273.
Markland, D. and Tobin, V. (2004). A modification to the behavioural regulation in
exercise questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation, Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology. 26, pp. 191-196.
McLachlan S. and Hagger, M.S. (2011). Do people differentiate between intrinsic and
extrinsic goals for physical activity? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 33, pp.
273-288.
54. 47
Mullan, E. and Markland, D. (1997). Variations in self-determination across the stages
of change for exercise in adults, Motivation and Emotion. 21, 349-362.
Mullan, E., Markland, D. and Ingledew, D.K. (1997). A graded conceptualisation of
self-determination in the regulation of exercise behaviour: Development of a measure
using confirmatory factor analytic procedures, Personality and Individual Differences.
23, 745-752.
Nuttin, J. and Lens, W. (1985). Future Time Perspective and Motivation: Theory and
Research. Leuven, Belgium: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.
Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J. and Bri`ere, N.M. (2001). Associations
among perceived autonomy support, forms of self-regulation, and persistence: a
prospective study, Motivation and Emotion. 25(4), pp. 279-306.
Prochaska, J. and DiClemente, C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change in
smoking: toward an integrative model of change, Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology. 5, pp. 390–395.
Ryan, R.M. and Connell, J.P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization:
examining reasons for acting in two domains, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. 57(5), pp. 749-761.
Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being, American Psychologist. 55,
pp. 68-78.
Simons, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W. and Lacante, M. (2004). Placing motivation
and future time perspective theory in temporal perspective, Educational Psychology
Review. 16(2), pp. 121-139.
55. 48
Spencer, L., Adams, T.B., Malone, S., Roy, L. and Yost, E. (2006). Applying the
transtheoretical model to exercise: A systematic and comprehensive review of the
literature, Health Promotion Practice. 7(4), pp. 428-443.
Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D.S. and Edwards, C.S. (1994). The
consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of
behaviour, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66, pp. 742-752.
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Soenens, B. and Lens, W. (2004). How to become a
persevering exerciser? Providing a clear future intrinsic goal in an autonomy-
supportive way, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 26, pp. 232-249.
Wilson, P.M., Rodgers, W.M., Loitz, C.C. and Scime, G. (2006). “It’s who I am…
Really?” The importance of integrated regulation in exercise contexts, Journal of
Applied Bio-behavioral Research. 11(2), pp. 79-104.
Wininger, S.R. and DeSena, T.M. (2012). Comparison of future time perspective and
self-determination theory for explaining exercise behaviour, Journal of Applied
Biobehavioural Research. 17(2), pp. 109-128.
Wulf, G., Freitas, H.E. and Tandy, R.D. (2014). Choosing to exercise more: Small
choices increase exercise engagement, Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 15, pp.
268-271.
Ziegelmann, J.P., Lippke, S. and Schwarzer, R. (2006). Subjective residual life
expectancy in health self-regulation, Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences.
61, pp. 195–201.
Zimbardo, P.G. and Boyd, J.N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: a valid, reliable
individual-differences metric, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77, pp.
1271-1288.
56. 49
Appendix 1
Project Schedule
January
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 Project Plan
Due
16 17
18 19 20 21 Survey
uploaded
onto Survey
Monkey
22 Email sent to
recruit
participants
23 24
25 26Continued
literature
review
27 28 29 Finalize
project
methodology
30 31
February
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
1 Emails with
link for
questionnaire
sent PILOT
2 3 4 Data
Analysis of
Pilot study
complete
5 6 Emails with
link for
questionnaire
sent
7
8 9 Write
Preliminary
Abstract
10 Data
Analysis
of Begin
11 12 13 14
15 16 17 Data
Analysis
Complete
18 19 20 21
22 23 Finalize
Introduction
24 25 26 27 28
Questionnaire
closed
March
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
1 2 Results
section
Begin
3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 Start
Discussion
24 25 26 27 Finalize
Results section
28
57. 50
29 30 31 1 2 Update
Abstract
3 Finalize
Discussion
4
April
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
5 6 Finalize All
sections
7 8 9 10 11
12 13 Meeting
with Tony
14 15 16 17 Organize
Printing
18
19 20 Print and
bind 2 copies
21 22 23
SUBMISSION
DEADLINE
58. 51
Appendix 2
SCQ
FOR PARTICIPANT
The Stages of Change Questionnaire
Exercising regularly is defined as 30 minutes five times a week or 20 minutes of vigorous-intense exercise
three times a week (Haskell et al., 2007).
Tick the one statement that best describes you:
o I currently do not exercise regularly, and I am not thinking of doing so for at least the next six months
o I currently do not exercise regularly, but I am thinking of doing so sometime in the next six months
o I currently do not exercise regularly, but I am taking active steps to do so in the very near future
o I currently exercise regularly, but I have only begun doing so within the last six months
o I currently exercise regularly, and I have done so for longer than six months
FOR RESEARCHER
Response corresponds with stage of change
o precontemplation
o contemplation
o preparation
o action
o maintenance
59. 52
Appendix 3
CFC-14
FOR PARTICIPANT
For each of the statements shown, please indicate whether or not the statement is characteristic of
you. If the statement is extremely uncharacteristic of you (not at all like you) please write a "1" in
the space provided to the right of the statement; if the statement is extremely characteristic of you
(very much like you) please write a "7” in the space provided. And, of course, use the numbers in
the middle if you fall between the extremes.
Consideration of Future Consequences-14 Scale*
1. I consider how things might be in the future, and try to influence those things with my day to day
behavior. (F)
2. Often I engage in a particular behavior in order to achieve outcomes that may not result for
many years. (F)
3. I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring the future will take care of itself. (I)
4. My behavior is only influenced by the immediate (i.e., a matter of days or weeks) outcomes of
my actions. (I)
5. My convenience is a big factor in the decisions I make or the actions I take.(I)
6. I am willing to sacrifice my immediate happiness or well-being in order to achieve future
outcomes. (F)
7. I think it is important to take warnings about negative outcomes seriously even if the negative
outcome will not occur for many years. (F)
8. I think it is more important to perform a behavior with important distant consequences than a
behavior with less important immediate consequences. (F)
9. I generally ignore warnings about possible future problems because I think the problems will be
resolved before they reach crisis level. (I)
10.I think that sacrificing now is usually unnecessary since future outcomes can be dealt with at a
later time. (I)
11.I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring that I will take care of future problems that
may occur at a later date. (I)
12.Since my day to day work has specific outcomes, it is more important to me than behavior that
has distant outcomes. (I)
13.When I make a decision, I think about how it might affect me in the future.(F)
60. 53
14.My behavior is generally influenced by future consequences.(F)
FOR RESEARCHER
Note on Scoring:
CFC-Immediate Sub-Scale: cfc3, cfc4, cfc5, cfc9, cfc10, cfc11, cfc12
CFC-Future Sub-Scale: cfc1, cfc2, cfc6, cfc7, cfc8, cfc13, cfc14
CFC-Total Scale: recode the immediate items (3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12), then average these recoded
items with the future items (1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14).
Reference for CFC-14 Scale:
* Joireman, J., Shaffer, M., Balliet, D., & Strathman, A. (2012). Promotion orientation explains why
future oriented people exercise and eat healthy: Evidence from the two-factor consideration of
future consequences 14 scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1272-1287.
Notes on the CFC Scale:
F = CFC-Future subscale item. I = CFC-Immediate subscale item.
The consideration of future consequences scale was developed by Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger
& Edwards (1994). The original items on the scale are items 1-12. Most research using the CFC
scale has treated it as a uni-dimensional construct. Internal reliability for the overall, 12-item scale
is high (typically ranging from .80 to .85) with a five-week temporal stability of .72 (Strathman et
al., 1994) (for a recent review of the CFC literature, see Joireman, Strathman, & Balliet, 2006).
While the internal reliability of the overall scale is quite high, recent research suggests the scale
contains two subscales, one tapping consideration of immediate consequences (CFC-I), the
other tapping consideration of future consequences (CFC-F) (Joireman, Balliet, Sprott,
Spangenberg, & Schultz, 2008).
More recently, the CFC scale has been expanded to a 14-item scale (with 2 new future items to
improve the reliability of the CFC-Future subscale) (Joireman, Shaffer, Balliet, & Strathman, 2012).
To obscure the purpose of the scale, we often call it the SGBE scale.
Strathman et al. originally used a 5-point scale. To create more variance, researchers have often
used the 7-point scale shown above.
61. 54
Appendix 4
BREQ-3
FOR PARTICIPANT
EXERCISE REGULATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE (BREQ-3)
Age: _______ years Sex: male female (please circle)
WHY DO YOU ENGAGE IN EXERCISE?
We are interested in the reasons underlying peoples’ decisions to engage or not engage in physical exercise. Using
the scale below, please indicate to what extent each of the following items is true for you. Please note that there are
no right or wrong answers and no trick questions. We simply want to know how you personally feel about exercise.
Your responses will be held in confidence and only used for our research purposes.
Not true Sometimes Very true
for me true for me for me
1 It’s important to me to exercise regularly 0 1 2 3 4
2 I don’t see why I should have to exercise 0 1 2 3 4
3 I exercise because it’s fun 0 1 2 3 4
4 I feel guilty when I don’t exercise 0 1 2 3 4
5 I exercise because it is consistent with 0 1 2 3 4
my life goals
6 I exercise because other people say I should 0 1 2 3 4
7 I value the benefits of exercise 0 1 2 3 4
8 I can’t see why I should bother exercising 0 1 2 3 4
9 I enjoy my exercise sessions 0 1 2 3 4
10 I feel ashamed when I miss an exercise session 0 1 2 3 4
11 I consider exercise part of my identity 0 1 2 3 4
12 I take part in exercise because my 0 1 2 3 4
friends/family/partner say I should
62. 55
13 I think it is important to make the effort to 0 1 2 3 4
exercise regularly
14 I don’t see the point in exercising 0 1 2 3 4
15 I find exercise a pleasurable activity 0 1 2 3 4
16 I feel like a failure when I haven’t 0 1 2 3 4
exercised in a while
17 I consider exercise a fundamental part 0 1 2 3 4
who I am
18 I exercise because others will not be 0 1 2 3 4
pleased with me if I don’t
19 I get restless if I don’t exercise regularly 0 1 2 3 4
20 I think exercising is a waste of time 0 1 2 3 4
21 I get pleasure and satisfaction from 0 1 2 3 4
participating in exercise
22 I would feel bad about myself if I was 0 1 2 3 4
not making time to exercise
23 I consider exercise consistent with my values 0 1 2 3 4
24 I feel under pressure from my friends/family 0 1 2 3 4
to exercise
Thank you for taking part in our research
David Markland PhD, C.Psychol
School of Sport, Health & Exercise Sciences
University of Wales, Bangor
d.a.markland@bangor.ac.uk
October 2014
63. 56
FOR RESEARCHER
As with other measures of the continuum of self-determination, the BREQ has been used either
as a multidimensional instrument giving separate scores for each subscale, or as a
unidimensional index of the degree of self-determination, known as the relative autonomy index
(Ryan & Connell, 1989). The choice of method will depend upon the research question being
asked or perhaps by the constraints imposed by sample size and the intended statistical
analyses. We present methods for calculating the RAI below. However, researchers considering
using the RAI should read Chemolli and Gagne (2014) who present cogent theoretical and
statistical arguments against the use of the RAI and we no longer recommend its use.
Multidimensional scoring
BREQ-3
Amotivation 2 8 14 20
External regulation 6 12 18 24
Introjected regulation 4 10 16 22 *
Identified regulation 1 7 13 19
Integrated regulation 5 11 17 23
Intrinsic regulation 3 9 15 21
* New item
The Relative Autonomy Index
The relative autonomy index (RAI) is a single score derived from the subscales that gives an
index of the degree to which respondents feel self-determined. The index is obtained by applying
a weighting to each subscale and then summing these weighted scores. In other words, each
subscale score is multiplied by its weighting and then these weighted scores are summed.
64. 57
Higher, positive scores indicate greater relative autonomy; lower, negative scores indicate more
controlled regulation.
For the BREQ-3 the weightings are as follows:
Amotivation -3
External regulation -2
Introjected regulation -1
Identified regulation +1
Integrated regulation +2
Intrinsic regulation +3
