13. All decisions that health professionals make health professionals make involve assumptions about causal mechanisms
14. Causal Relationships in Health Care Aetiology: Risk factors Disease Therapy: Treatment Improvement in patients condition Health service Health services Improved delivery: community health
21. Table 1: Results of Snow’s Investigation 61 Known to have drunk pump water 6 Believed not to have drunk pump water 6 No info 5 In families sending to Broad St. pump for water 3 Children attending school near pump 2 No info 73 living near Broad St. pump 10 not living near pump 83 Deaths* * Out of 83 individuals who had died of the disease, 69 were known definitely or could be assumed to have drunk the pump water, 6 were believed not to have drunk it, and for 8 there was no information
35. What is the oral health status of Ontario’s elderly? Is there an association between smoking and the onset and course of periodontal disease? Does community water fluoridation increase the risk of hip fracture in the elderly? Does the use of dental services by adolescents decline after school dental programs cease?
36. How does chronic facial pain affect the quality of life? Is this improved following consultation and treatment at a specialist pain clinic? How much variation is there in dentists’ diagnoses of caries based on radiographs? What proportion of the population avoid dental treatment because of fear and anxiety, and how is this changing over time?
37. ? Does oral infection (periodontal disease) increase the risk of major systemic disorders such as heart disease, stroke and low birth weight?
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