sociology

Sociology 101
John J. Macionis

The Foundations of Sociology
Ch. 1 The Sociological Perspective
1. The Sociological Perspective
2. Country Income Levels
3. Stereotype
4. Theory A, B, and C.

• Sociology: is the systematic study of human
society
• Sociological perspective: sociology’s special
point of view that sees general patterns of
society in the lives of particular people.

The Importance of a Global Perspective
• High-Income Countries:
• High Standard of living
• Produce most of the worlds goods and service
• Economically, people lucky not smartest.
• 76 countries that include:
• United States, Canada, Argentina, Western Europe, Israel, Saudi
Arabia, Japan, and Australia.

The importance of Global Perspective
Middle-income countries:
living standards are average
rural cities,
ride scooters, bicycles
8 years of schooling
large amounts of social inequalities
70 nations
Eastern Europe, some of Africa and most of Latin America.

The Importance of a Global Perspective
Low-income countries
Poor housing
unsafe water,
too little food,
little chance to improve their lives.
48 countries
• Africa and few in Asia

Every chapter makes a comparison between the
US and other nations, because
• 1. Where we live shapes the lives we lead.
• 2.Societies throughout the world are increasingly interconnected
(immigrants bring skills, knowledge, and diversity of food).
• 3. What happens in the rest of the world affects life here( most new jobs
in US involve global understanding)
• 4. Many social problems that we face in the US are far more serious
elsewhere ( poverty and gender inequality is greater elsewhere)
• 5. Thinking globally helps us learn more about ourselves.(differences in
how we approach poverty here and abroad)

Theory: a statement of how and why specific facts are related.
Theory A: The Structural-Functional Approach
Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability
Theory B: The Social-Conflict Approach
Sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change.
Theory C :The Symbolic-Interaction Approach
Sees society as the product of the everyday interaction of the
individual.

The Foundations of Society
• Stereotype: a simplified description applied to
every person in some category.

The Sociological Perspective
Ch. 2 Sociological Investigation
• Chapter Two Key Terms
1.Positivist sociology
2.Interpretive Sociology
3. Correlation
4. Hawthorne Effect
5. Inductive and Deductive Thought

Three Ways to Do Sociology Research
1. Positivist Sociology:
a systematic observation of social behavior
Assumes an objective reality exists out there
Measurements from manipulated variables and
concepts (data)
Numerical measures.
More likely to use surveys, questionnaires, or
previously collected/stored data
Empirical Evidence ( uses the senses)

2. Interpretive sociology:
– Interpretation of the meaning people attach to
their social world
– Just not observe but asks why they do it
– Thoughts and Feelings are important.
– Gathers empirical evidence: use of senses (seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling)

Positivist researcher VS Interpretive researcher
– Positivists focuses on actions on what people do whereas the
Interpretive researcher people’s understanding of their actions and
surroundings.
– Positivist claim that objective reality exists whereas the interpretive
researcher reality is subjective and constructed by people in the
course of their everyday lives
• Positivist research VS Interpretive research
– Positivist tends to favor quantitative data,
whereas the interpretive favor qualitative data.
Positivist is best performed in laboratory whereas
Interpretive learn by interacting with people

3. The Critical Sociologist :
• focuses on the need for social change
• asks moral and political questions
• Believe they should be social activist in pursuit of greater
social equality.
• All research is political or bias , either it calls for change or it
does not.
• Political range from liberal to radical left.

Issues Affecting Sociological Research
Gender: the most affected issue in
research. Because of:
Androcentricity: focus on male
Overgeneralizing: conclusions for all humanity based on an all male study
Gender Blindness: fails to see how women are affected (ex: elderly men)
Double Standards: judge women and men differently ( ex: man more
important in a family study)
Interference : gender of researcher may limit access to participants.

Research Methods
A research method: a systematic plan for doing
research.
t:

Examples of a sociological research studies.
The Hawthrone Effect
• 1930’s Western Electric Company
• Increase lighting will increase productivity
• Decreased lighting also increased productivity
• A change in a subject’s behavior caused simply by the awareness of
being studied.
• The Standford County Prison
• https://youtu.be/Z0jYx8nwjFQ

Building A Theory
Inductive Logical Thought: transforms specific
observation into general theory .
Deductive Logical Thought: transforms general theory
into specific hypothesis suitable for testing.

Correlation

Ch. 3 Culture
Chapter 3 Key Terms
1.Culture
2. Values
3. Beliefs
4. Norms
5. Cultural Diversity
6. Four Theories of Culture

Ch. 3 Culture
What is Culture?
The ways of thinking.
The ways of acting.
The material objects that together form a people’s way of life.
Nonmaterial culture: ideas created by members of society.
Material culture: physical things created by members of society.

Ch. 3 Culture
The Elements of Culture
Symbols: anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who
share a culture ( ex: flag, words, whistle, cyber symbols, red light)
Culture shock: do not understand symbols of a culture ( dogs).
Language: a system of symbols that allows people to communicate.
Values: culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable,
good, and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines.
Beliefs: specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true.
Norms: rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its
members.
https://youtu.be/XUO59Emi3eo

Ch. 3 Culture
Cultural Diversity:
Many Ways of Life in One World
High Culture: social patterns of the elite
ex: Violin vs Fiddle
Popular Culture: widespread among society
Subculture :patterns that set apart some segments of a society’s population;
ex: choppers, yoga, fans, beach crowd, homeless
Confucius: all people are the same, it’s only their habits that are different.
Multiculturalism: promoting equality for all cultural traditions. Eurocentrism VS
Afrocentrism
https://youtu.be/hfO82z29hWg

Ch. 3 Culture
Theories of Culture
Structural-Functional Theory
The Functions of Culture
Cultural values direct our lives, give meaning to what we do and
bind people together ; supports operations of society.
• Thinking functionally helps us understand unfamiliar ways of
life. Other cultural traits have various functions that support
the operation of society. Ex: Amish lifestyle
• Culture are strategies for meeting human needs.
• One common element: family control reproduction and
oversee care of children. Culture guides funerals
https://youtu.be/kGrVhM_Gi8k

Ch. 3 Culture
Theories of Culture
• Social-Conflict Theory:
Inequality and Culture .
• Any cultural trait benefits some members of society at the expense of others.
• Culture is shaped by a society’s system of economic production
• Societies system of material production has a powerful effect on the rest of a
culture
• Our (USA) cultural values of competiveness and material success; serves interest of
wealthy elite. Teaches us to think rich and powerful work harder thus deserve
wealth and privileges.
• Example of movement for social change: Civil Rights and Woman’s
Movement.

Ch. 3 Culture
Theories of Culture
Feminist Theory: Gender and Culture
• Gender refers to personal traits and social positions that members of a
society attach to being female or male.
• Men have greater access to the workforce, political system, and
household.
• Feminist claim culture is “gendered”.
• Claim male domination is natural thus cannot be changed

Ch. 3 Culture
Theories of Culture
Sociobiology: Evolution and Culture
• A theoretical approach that explores ways in which human
biology affects how we create culture.
• Charles Darwin and natural selection
– Reproduce themselves, blueprint for reproduction is genes, random
variation is genes allow a species to ‘try out” new life patterns in a
particular environment through survival or expire genes, good genes
are passed, thousands of generation allows genes of survival to
dominate.
We are all humans member of a single biological species.
https://youtu.be/xlmruDxY48Y

Ch. 4. Society
Key Terms
• Gerhard Lenski
• Karl Marx
• Max Weber
• Emile Durkheim

Ch. 4. Society
Gerhard Lenski: Society and Technology
Technological development has shaped the history of human societies.
• https://youtu.be/Rj4YxigskyU
• Sociocultural evolution: changes that occur as a society gains new technology.
• Hunting and Gathering societies: making use of simple tools to hunt animals
and gather vegetation for food.
• Horticultural and Pastoral societies: hand tools to raise crops.
• Agrarian Societies: large scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or
more powerful sources.
• Industrial Societies: advanced sources of energy to drive big machinery.
• Postindustrial societies: production of information using computer
technology.

Ch. 4. Society
Gerhard Lenski: Society and Technology
The Limits of Technology
• No quick fix for social problems
• More personal freedom but lack a sense of community
(preindustrial life)
• Nuclear weapon can take us back to stone age.
• Damages to planet, poisoning planet
• Consuming limited resources
• Extinction of necessary plants and animals

Ch. 4. Society
Karl Marx: Society and Conflict
Importance of class conflict to the historical development of
human societies.
• Karl Marx: (1818-1883) defined society in terms of class conflicts
• Died at age 65
• lived in London
• British Empire most productive years
• Riches ended up in hands of a few
• Observed the difference in rich and poor and how it changed social
situation.
• https://youtu.be/hlw-biJcXvA

Ch. 4. Society
Importance of class conflict to the historical development of human societies.
Conflict and Capitalism
https://youtu.be/gR3igiwaeyc
Capitalist vs Proletarians
Communism: people commonly own and equally share food and other things they produce.
Bourgeoise: upper-commercial class, big business owners
Class Conflict: conflict between classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power.

Ch. 4. Society
Importance of class conflict to the historical development of human societies
Karl Marx and the Making of a Revolution
– Become aware of their oppression
– Organize and act to address problem
– False consciousness vs class consciousness
– Worker’s recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to
capitalists and ultimately to the market approach/capitalism.
Overcome alienation by uniting into a true social class,
aware of the cause of their problems and ready to change
society.

Ch. 4. Society
Importance of class conflict to the historical development of human
societies.
Capitalism causes Alienation.
Alienation from the act of working.
• no say in what and how to make, repetition, loss of creativity
Alienation from the products of work.
• product belongs to owner not worker
Alienation from other workers
• competitive workers, no bonds, little chance for companionship.
Alienation from human potential.
• No fulfillment, no mental or physical growth.

Ch. 4. Society
Max Weber: The Rationalization of Society
Importance of Ideas to the Development of Human
Societies
• 1864-1920 died at 56
• Agreed with Carl Marx but focused on IDEALISM
• How human ideas, beliefs and values, shape society.
Rationalization: historical change from tradition to rational
• Traditional thought: pre-industry, values and beliefs passed from
generation
• Rational thought: emphasize deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the
most efficient way to accomplish a particular task.
• https://youtu.be/IjwKFjGuqdY

Ch. 4. Society
Importance of Ideas to the Development of Human Societies.
Modern society a product of a new way of thinking
• Industrial Revolution and Capitalism created modern rationality
• Rationalization of society: the historical change from tradition to
rationality as a main type of human thought.
• Max Weber “ believed in Capitalism” vs Karl Marx said “it did not meet
needs of people”.

Ch. 4. Society
Importance of Ideas to the Development of Human Societies.
Protestantism and Capitalism
https://youtu.be/ICppFQ6Tabw
Crash Course
https://youtu.be/69VF7mT4nRU

Ch. 4. Society
Emile Durkheim: Society and Function
Social bonds typical of traditional and modern societies.
Structure-Function-Personality
France (1858-1917) Died 59
To love society is to love something beyond us and something in ourselves.
• Structure:
• Society beyond ourselves. Here long before we were born.
• Society bigger thus controls thoughts and action
• Society takes on a life of its own and demands a measure of
obedience from creators

Ch. 4. Society
• Function:
• society as a system
• Operations of society as a whole
• Crime: only by defining acts as wrong do people construct and
defend morality
• Crime is not abnormal

Ch. 4. Society
• Personality: Society in Ourselves
• Society in ourselves: it nurtures how we think and feel
• Society needs restraints because we are creatures who want
more and more.
• Suicide : higher rates of suicide
– self destruction; enormous freedom of the young and rich and
famous carries a high price in terms of suicide.

Ch. 4. Society
Evolving Societies: The Division of Labor.
Mechanical solidarity : social bonds based on common sentiments and shared
moral values, that are strong among members of preindustrial societies.
Organic solidarity: social bonds based on specialization and interdependence,
that are among members of industrial societies.

Ch. 4. Society
Emile Durkheim: Society and
Function
https://youtu.be/z9W0GQvONKc
https://youtu.be/IZfGGF-YYzY
https://youtu.be/XGargZd9KkQ

Ch. 5 Socialization
Key Terms:
Personality
Freud
Piaget
Kohlberg
Erickson.

Ch. 5 Socialization
• Social Experience: The key to our humanity
• Socialization: the lifelong social experience by which people
develop their human potential
• Personality: a person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting,
thinking, and feeling.

Ch. 5 Socialization
Understanding Socialization
Sigmund Freud’s Elements of Personality
(1856-1939) 83 years old.
• Sexual or emotional bonding: EROS ( life instinct
• Aggressive drive: Thantos (death instinct) operates at an unconscious
level that creates deep inner tension.
• ID: basic drives , unconscious, demands immediate satisfaction
• Ego: conscious effort to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives
• Superego: cultural values and norms internalized
https://youtu.be/NCXynjpFaKU

Ch. 5 Socialization
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• The sensorimotor stage
• The Preoperational Stage
• The Concrete Operational Stage
• The Formal Operational Stage.
https://youtu.be/4oGnvxzOqDw History of Piaget.
https://youtu.be/7AuhaJYqXQ4 Rap Song

Ch. 5 Socialization
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.
https://youtu.be/U-WbYOO8nUQ
Preconventional Level: rightness as what feels good to me(child-proof
homes)
Conventional: lose selfishness, learn to define right and wrong by what
pleases parents and conforms to cultural norms
Postconventional :move beyond society’s norms: abstract ethical
principles
Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Gender and Moral Development.
--Justice based morality VS Care based morality
https://youtu.be/HctzZwwueL4

Ch. 5 Socialization
Erick H. Erickson’s Eight Stages of Development
https://youtu.be/aYCBdZLCDBQ
Disney Pixar and Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of
Development
https://youtu.be/Iz-AeGMhzV0
(Page. 120)

Ch. 5 Socialization
• Agents of Socialization
•
• The Family: most important agent
• The School: joins family in socializing gender roles
• The Peer Group: same interest, social position, and common age
• The Mass Media: delivering impersonal communications to a vast amount
of people. Introduce people to ideas and images that reflect the larger
society and entire world.

The Foundation of Society
Ch. 6 Social Interaction in Everyday Life
• Key Terms
• Status
• Role
• Thomas Theorm
• Dramaturgical analysis
• Social construct of Feelings
• Gender
• Humor

Social Structure : A Guide to Everyday Living
What is Status
Status: a social position that a person holds. A social identity and helps
define our relationship to others.
Status set: all the statuses a person hold at a given time.
changes over life.
Ascribed Status: receives at birth or involuntary change.
Achieved Status: reflects skills and effort, voluntary change
Master Status: a status that has special importance for social identity ,
often shaping a person’s entire life.
https://youtu.be/jZKQoTQwjdw

Social Structure : A Guide to Everyday Living
What is Role?
• Role. Behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status.
ex: uncle’s responsibility based on culture.
• Role Set: different role behaviors attached to a single status.
• Ex: mothers, wife, professor, researcher.
• Role Conflict: conflict among the roles connected to two or more
statuses . Ex: work and family
• Role Strain: tension among the roles connected to a single status.
Ex: various roles attached to one status
• Role Exit: disengage from important social roles.
https://youtu.be/TktF6unUlso

The Social Construction of Reality: is the process by
which people creatively shape reality through social interaction.
The Thomas Theorem: The objective reality of a situation doesn't matter
as much as someone's perception of what someone believes is happening.
EX: Iraq war and methods of mass destruction.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy.
Street Smarts: form of constructing reality, creatively (page 141).
https://youtu.be/Zxj8NAxK3VU

Dramaturgical Analysis: the study of social interaction in terms of
theatrical performance.
The Presentation of Self: a person’s efforts to create specific impressions in
the mind of others. Impression management. Performance
https://youtu.be/5Qe5TI__ZDU.
Gender and Performance: Gender is one of the key elements in the
presentation of self.
Demeanor: more powerful more freedom.
Use of space: men command more space
Staring, smiling, and touching: men stare to claim social dominance,
women smile more, men make first act of touching because of
dominance.

Interaction in Everyday Life: Three Applications
Emotions-Language-Humor
Emotions: The Social Construction of Feelings
Six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise.
Culture defines what triggers, display and value emotions.
https://youtu.be/JChxT9Yv2iw
Language: The Social Construction of Gender
Language communicates not only surface-reality but deeper levels of meaning.
Men use language to control surroundings
Women keep or combine last names
Language mirrors social attitude and helps perpetuate them.
Two sexes speaking different languages.

Interaction in Everyday Life: Three Applications
Emotions-Language-Humor
Reality Play: The Social Construction of Humor
Foundation: unexpected violation of cultural patterns,
contradictions, ambiguities, and double meaning.
Dynamics: conventional and unconventional realities.
Functions: safety value, sensitive topics, relieve tension.
Conflicts: put down another person, hostility, make fun of
powerful.

Ch. 7 Groups and Organizations
Key Terms
Social groups
Group Leadership Role and Style
Group Conformity Experiments
Group-Think
Bureaucracy
Bureaucratic ritualism
Scientific Management

Social Groups
Primary Groups: a small social group whose members share personal and lasting
relationship. Ex: family
Secondary Groups: large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a
specific goal or activity. EX: work, formal & polite, women’s group.
Group Leadership:3 types Authoritarian, Democratic, Laissez-faire.
Group Conformity: Group influence the behavior of their members by promoting
conformity. Asch’s Research
https://youtu.be/NyDDyT1lDhA
Candide Camera https://youtu.be/BgRoiTWkBHU
Milgram’s research
https://youtu.be/uLobqJg-4TE

Group Leadership Role and Style
TWO LEADERSHIP ROLES
Instrumental: focus on the completion of task
Expressive: focus on group’s well-being
https://youtu.be/FdjSrWn12BU Leader or Manager?
THREE LEADERSHIP STYLES
Authoritarian Leadership: takes personal charge of decision making
and demands group obey orders
Democratic Leadership: more expressive and includes everyone in
decision making.
Laissez-Faire: “ leave it alone” let people function on own.
https://youtu.be/IZA94smSkQg

Social Groups
Groupthink: the tendency of groups members to conform, resulting in a
narrow view of some issue. Ex board members
Reference Groups: a social group that serves as a point of reference in
making evaluations and decisions. Ex: dress for an interview, strategy to win
acceptance.
In-Groups: member feels respected and loyalty
Out-Groups: persons feels a sense of competition or opposition:
ex: negative and positive evaluation of other groups.
Group Size: increase in size, square # of relationships, dyad= very
intense, Triad= mediator , more stable.

Formal Organizations: large secondary organized to achieve
their goals efficiently.
Types of Formal Organizations:
Utilitarian :individual choice, business or government.
Normative: purse a goal, voluntary ex: PTA, political, religious.
Coercive: involuntary, prison, psych ward, draft ex: hospital
Characteristics of Bureaucracy: model rationality designed to
perform tasks efficiently. (specialization, hierarchy of positions,
rules and regulations, technical competence, impersonality,
forma and written communication)

• Problems of Bureaucracy
• Bureaucratic alienation: dehumanize the people it is suppose
to serve. Example the US Army accidently sent letters to
family members of solders killed in Iraq and Afghanistan
addressing the recipient as “John Doe”
• Bureaucratic inefficiency and Ritualism: a focus on rules and
regulations to the point of undermining an organization’s
goals. Ex: Post Office kept mailing letters to Osama bin Laden.
• Bureaucratic inertia: tendency of bureaucratic organizations
to perpetuate themselves. EX: agriculture office in every
state?

The Evolution of Formal Organizations
Scientific Management: application of scientific principles to the operation of
a business or other large organization. (Mangers observe tasks, perform each job
more efficiently, provide guidance and incentives.)
The First Challenge: Race and Gender: 1960 unfair hiring practices. Patterns of
privilege and exclusion, women better at communication.
The Second Challenge: The Japanese Work Organization (1980) strong collective
spirit, give same salary and responsibility, hire for life, all phases of operations, quality
circles, home mortgages.
The Third Challenge: The Changing Nature Of Work : Global, (creative freedom,
competitive work teams, flatter organization, greater flexibility)

Ch. 8 Sexuality and Society
• Key Terms
• Primary sex characteristics
• Secondary sex characteristics
• Sexual orientation
• Theories of sexuality.

Sexuality is both biological and a cultural issue.
Understanding Sexuality
Sex: A Biological Issue
SEX: the biological distinction between females and males.
23 matching chromosomes in female ovum and male sperm.
Male =XY Female = XX
Sex and the Body
Primary Characteristics: genitals , organs used for reproduction
Secondary Characteristics: bodily development
Gender: is an element of culture, traits, and behavior. Responsibilities,
opportunities, privilege assigned to gender.
Intersexual People: genitalia both male and female characteristics
(Hermorphidiites)

Sexuality is both biological and a cultural issue.
Understanding Sexuality
Sex: A cultural Issue
Cultural variation: Alfred Kinsey(1948) most heterosexual couples reported
having intercourse in a single position, face to face. South Seas
The Incest Taboo
• A norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives.
• Half states outlaw marriage between first cousins
• Navajo North American apply incest only to mother and relatives on her
side. Peru and ancient Egypt form brother –sister marriages for power.
• Reproduction raises odds of mental or physical abnormalities
• Confuse kinships

Changes in sexuality in the United States.
Sexual Attitudes in the United States
The Sexual Revolution
Roaring Twenties: 1920s Millions of young adults moving to cities.
Alfred Kinsey: (1948)began openness toward the topic.
Technology: 1960’s birth control, women behavior, more openness.
The Sexual Counterrevolution
1980s a return to family values, sexually transmitted disease
Premarital Sex
Born in early 1900 (50% of men and 6% of women) before 19yo
Baby-boomers increase in females, oral sex exaggerated fear of STD

Changes in sexuality in the United States.
Sexual Attitudes in the United States
Sex between Adults
Married partners have most sex and most satisfied physically and emotionally.
Extramarital Sex
Norm of fidelity within marriage strong element in USA
Report of infidelity higher among men, among young, among lower status, no
religious affiliation, low level of happiness in marriage.
Sex and the Life Course
Age 16 active, 25 active with a partner, 40 intercourse 64X a year, 60 one or
more times a year.

Factors that shape sexual orientation.
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation: A person’s romantic and emotional attraction to another person.
Heterosexual: sexual attraction to someone of the other sex
Homosexuality: sexual attraction to someone of the same sex
Bisexuality: attraction to people of both sexes.
Among the ancient Greeks, upper-class men considered homosexuality the highest form of
relationship because they saw women as intellectually inferior.
What gives us a Sexual Orientation
A product of society: homosexuality gained special identity over a century ago,
Sibera: one man dresses as a women an does housework
New Guinea: young men perform oral sex in belief that semen will make them more masculine
Mexico ( southeastern) ancient religion recognizes gods who are both male and female
A product of Biology: sexual orientation is innate. Hypothalamus , part of brain that regulates
hormones
Distinctive genetics: high level of gay relatives on mother’s side, gay gene or a biological
development of hormones and brain.

Sexual Orientation
How Many Gay People are there?
Kinsey estimated that about 4 percent male and 2 percent females have an exclusively same sex
orientation.
Scientist say the gay population could be as high as 10%.
The Gay Rights Movement
Greater acceptance, 2014 figure show ¾ college students support same-sex marriage. Middle of 20th
century changes began, no longer a mental illness or a crime.
Transgender: appearing or behaving in ways that challenge conventional cultural norms concerning how
females and males should look and act. Not a sexual orientation. Estimates 3 in every 1000 adults have
transgender identity.
• Youtube: Five Genders? | National Geographic
•

Sexual Issues and Controversies
Current controversies involving sexuality
Teen Pregnancy
Biologically mature but not emotionally mature to appreciate consequences
All racial and ethnic categories, low level of parental education and income increase likelihood of teen pregnancy.
Pregnancy rate higher in 1950s, married younger, no abortion, birth control
Pornography
Sexually explicit material intended to cause sexual arousal.
US Supreme Court gives local communities the power to decide for themselves what violates community standards.
Not seen as a moral issues but a power issue because it degrades women, playthings.
Most people view pornography as an encouragement of rape.
Principles of free speech and protection of artistic expression.
Prostitution
The selling of sexual services. World’s oldest profession
Types of Prostitution: Call girls(elite escort services),massage parlors (brothels) Streetwalkers.
A victimless crime: no obvious victim, poor women trapped (Thailand, 2 million or 10% of women in labor force) suffer
physical and emotional abuse, become infected with HIV or other STD. The Johns?
Sexual Violence: Rape and Date Rape
Rape: an expression of power, sex to hurt, humiliate or control. 80000 reports a year, men 11% of cases not
homosexual but domination.
Date Rape: forcible sexual violence against women by men the know, 10% high school students, college higher levels.

Theories of Sexuality
Sociology’s major theories to the topic of sexuality.
Structural-Functional Theory: Social Patterns
The need to regulate sexuality: condemn married people from having sex with someone else. Sexual passion unchecked threatens family life.
Once birth control lead to more permissive society.
Latent Functions: The case of prostitution: one way to meet sexual needs of soldiers, travelers, not physically attractive, too poor to marry.
Sex without hassle of a relationship. Don’t pay for sex, but pay to leave.
Symbolic-Interaction Theory: How people interact.
The social construction of sexuality: construct different realities, understanding of sexuality changes over time.
Virginity was a strong norm due to lack of birth control.
12th century enact celibacy for priest.
Believe children should be educated about sex before teens.
Global comparison:
New Guinea ignored sexual activity with young children, issues of male and female circumcision.
Social-Conflict and Feminist Theories: Dimensions of inequality.
Sexuality: reflecting social inequalities
More likely to arrest female and not the John, economic opportunities equal to Johns? People as less worthy
Sexuality: creating social inequalities
Devalues women into objects, women forced on pleasing men, men have power over women, women’s reproduction ruled by
men, Viagra and letter from sex partner, sport or violence verbs, reproductive justice
Queer Theory
Heterosexual dominating homosexual. Heterosexism , not heterosexual labeled queers,

Ch. 9 Deviance
Key Terms
• Theories of deviance
• Structural-functional theory
• Symbolic-interaction theory
• Theories of class, race, gender
• Criminal justice system

Ch. 9 Deviance
What is Deviance?
Social Control : attempts by society to regulate people’s thoughts and behavior. Parental process
Criminal justice system The organizations, police, courts, and prison officals that respond to alleged violations
of the law. (roots of deviance are deep in society).
The Biological Context
Cesare Lombrosco (1835-1919) low foreheads, prominent jaws and cheekbones, hairiness and long arms. Ape-like
William Sheldon: muscular bodies. Parents distant self from powerful built boys who show less sensitivity. Self –
fulfilling prophecy of becoming bullies
Genetics study, 25 years, 400 boys results show defective genes and environmental factors as good predictors of crime
and violence.
Personality Factors
-Deviance viewed as unsuccessful socialization.
-Reckless and Dinitz study (1967) good boys displayed strong conscience (superego). Bad boys weaker
conscience displayed little tolerance of frustration, out of step with conventional culture.
-Levels of self –control, ability to withstand frustration, and ability to delay gratification.

Ch. 9 Deviance
Structural-Functional Theories: The Functions of Deviance
Emile Durheim’s Basic Insight :
Deviance affirms cultural values and norms
There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime. Deviance is needed to define and support
morality.
Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries
By defining individuals as deviant, people draw a boundary between right and wrong.
Responding to deviance brings people together
People react to deviance with shared outrage, “ the moral ties that bind them. Demonstration against deadly
force.
Deviance encourages social change.
Alternatives to status quo and encourage change. “Today’s deviance can become tomorrows morality”
The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay: created deviance to clarify their moral boundaries. “the upright man
judges his smallest failing with a severity”.

Ch. 9 Deviance
Structural-Functional Theories: The Functions of Deviance
Merton’s Strain Theory
Society can be set up that encourages too much deviance . Society must provide means (schooling & job) to achieve
cultural goals (financial success).
Conformity: reaching cultural goals through approved means.
RESPONSE TO FAILURE
Innovation: using unconventional means (street crime).
Ritualism: not rich but stick to rule to feel respectable.
Retreatism: reject cultural and conventional living a drop-out: alcoholism, drug addicts, and homeless
Rebellion: form counter culture supporting alternatives to the existing social order.
Deviant Substructure
Conflict subcultures: armed street gangs
Retreatist subcultures: drop-out, alcoholism or drug addicts.
Lower class youths have least opportunities, neglected by society.
Walter Miller: 1) conflict with teachers and police, 2) toughness value 3)smartness able to
survive streets, 4) a need for excitement, thrills of danger, 5) belief in fate, people lack
control over own lives, 6) a desire for freedom often expressed as anger toward authority
figures.

Ch. 9 Deviance
Symbolic-Interaction Theories: Defining Deviance
Labeling Theory: the idea that deviance and conformity results not so much
from what people do as from how others respond to those actions.
Primary and Secondary Deviance: skipping school and underage drinking: adult notices then
individual may take on deviant identity ie, dressing, talking, rejecting people. Change in self-
concept is secondary deviance.
Stigma
A powerful negative label that greatly changes a person’s self concept and social identity.
Degradation ceremony: criminal trail, HS graduation in reverse, see negative terms.
Retrospective and Projective Labeling
Retrospective: thinking back about a person’s behavior. Projective: stigmatizing a person’s future.
Labeling Difference as Deviance
Too quick to label mental illness as deviant (homeless). Eccentric lady

Ch. 9 Deviance
Symbolic-Interaction Theories: Defining Deviance
The Medicalization of Deviance
The transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition.
Alcoholics as morally weak people easily tempted by the pleasure of drink, obesity, drug addiction,
sexual promiscuity.
The Difference Labels Make.
1) Who responds to deviance police or clinical specialist. 2) how people respond; punishment or
treatment. 3) personal competence of the deviant person: take responsibility for behavior. Competent
or incompetent.
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory
A person’s tendency toward conformity or deviance depends on the amount of contact with others who
encourage or reject conventional behavior. Peer group encourage behavior.
Hirschi’s Control Theory
1) attachment: strong or weak relationships. 2) Opportunity availability 3)
Involvement: involved in legitimate activities or just hanging out. 4)Belief:
morality/respect or left unsupervised.

Ch. 9 Deviance
Theories of Class, Race, and Gender: Deviance and Inequality
Deviance and Power
1)Norms reflect the interest of the rich. 2) powerful have resources to resist deviant labels. 3) widespread
belief that norms and laws are natural and good masks their political character.
Deviance and Capitalism
Deviant labels are applied to people who interfere with capitalism. 1) capitalism is based on private control of
wealth. Poor who steal from rich are deviants. Bad landlords are just doing business 2) people who cannot or
will not work risk being labeled deviant. 3) capitalism depends on respect for authority. 4) anyone who
challenges the capitalistic status quo is labeled a deviant.
White Collar Crime
A crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupation.
Corporate Crime
The illegal actions of a corporate or people acting on its behalf.
Organized Crime
A business supplying illegal goods or services
Race-Conflict Theory: Hate Crimes
A hate crime is a criminal act against a person or a person’s property by an offender motivated by racial or othe
bias.
Feminist Theory: Deviance and Gender : constraints on women

Ch. 9 Deviance
Crime
Types of Crime
Crime against the person: crime that direct violence or the threat of violence against others
Crimes against property: crimes the involve theft of property belonging to others.
Victimless crimes: violation of law in which there are no obvious victims; drugs, prostitution, gambling.
Criminal Statistics
Victimization survey found twice as many serious crimes than reported by police.
The Street Criminal: A Profile
Age: rise in adolescence , and fall as they get older
Gender: men arrested 2 times more often , gap is narrowing
Social Class: street crime high among lower class.
Race and ethnicity: 1) race is related to social standings, 2) single parenting . 3)
prejudice among police. 4) drunk driving and white collar crime; proportion of
white increase substantially.
Crime in Global Perspective

Ch. 9 Deviance
The U.S. Criminal System
Operations of the criminal justice system
Due Process: 1) fair notice of legal proceeding.2) opportunity to present a defense during a hearing. 3) judge or jury that weighs
the evidence impartially.
Police
Maintain public order by enforcing the law.
Courts
An adversarial process involving attorneys, one representing the defendant and another representing the state in the presence of
a judge who monitors legal procedures.
Punishment
Retribution: an act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer a s much as the suffering caused by the crime.
Moral Balance.
Deterrence: the attempt to discourage criminality through the use if punishment. Execution and physical mutilation replaced with
imprisonment.
Rehabilitation: reforming the offender to prevent later offenses.
Societal Protection: rendering an offender incapable of further offense temporally through imprisonment or presently by
execution.
The Death Penalty: 1) crime rate down less interest in server punishment.2) applied unjustly, 3) more life in prison sentences, 4) high
cost of prosecuting capital cases
Community-Based Corrections: correctional programs operating within society at large rather than behind
prison walls. 1) probation 2) shock probation( prison and probation) 3) Parole: release but under supervision of
parole officer.

Part ll Social Stratification
• The focus of the next six chapters
on social stratification is very
important because our social
standing affects almost
everything about our lives.

Part II Social Stratification
• Ch. 10 Social Stratification
• Ch. 11Social Class in the United States
• Ch. 12 Global Stratification
• Ch. 13 Gender Stratification
• Ch. 14 Race and Ethnicity
• Ch. 15 Aging and the Elderly

Social Inequality
Ch. 10 Social Stratification
• Key Terms
• Social stratification
• Caste and class system
• Social inequality
• Conspicuous consumption
• Meritocracy

Social Inequality
• What is social stratification?
• Four Principles that underlie social stratification.
Social stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in
a hierarchy.
1) Social stratification is a trait of society , not simply a reflection of individual
differences. Able to do better because of privileged status. The system shapes the lives of
us all.
2) Social stratification carries over from generation to generation
Social mobility: change in position within the social hierarchy. Move downward or
horizontally. Social standing of most stays the same over time
3) Social stratification is universal but variable
What is unequal. How unequal. Prestige –Wealth- Power.
1) Social stratification involves not just inequality but belief as well.
Define these relationships as fair, how and why differ based on society

Social Inequality
Caste and Class Systems
Closed system: allow for little change in social position = Caste System
Open system: permits much more social mobility= Class System.
The Caste System: based on ascription or birth.
An Illustration: India caste system part of everyday life
Four main caste systems and hundreds of sub-caste groups
1)Each family perform one type of work. 2) marry others in same
ranking selected by parents. 3)norms reinforce belief of purer higher
caste and polluted lower class
Agrarian life VS industrial cities: need of people on farm, city
more choices/marriage

Social Inequality
• Caste and Class Systems
The Class system : social stratification based on both birth and
individual achievement.
Meritocracy: social stratification based on personal merit. Person’s
knowledge, abilities, and effort. A pure meritocracy would have
individual moving up and down the social ranking all the time. Caste
system equate meritocracy with loyalty.
Status Consistency: the degree of uniformity in a person’s social
standing across various dimensions of social inequality. Lines between
social classes are harder to define.

Social Inequality
Caste and Class: The United Kingdom.
• Aristocratic England:
• Middle Ages, England had a aristocratic society that resembled a caste system.
• Aristocrats speak with authority of God.
• Owned most of the land & wealth
• Known as First estate , second estate, Dukes, Earls, Barons
• Believed engaging in trade was beneath them.
• Primogeniture (first born) land passed to oldest so or relative.
• Other males took honorable occupations: military, judges
• Women could not inherit land thus depended on security of marriage
• COMMONERS: serf workers little education , known as the third estate
• Blurring of nobility and wealthy commoners gave rise to class system.
• Parliament’s House of Lords: aristocrats of noble birth
• House of Commons: Prime minister and other leaders

Social Inequality
Another Example: Japan
5th century, caste system, shogun, sumarai, commoners, burakunin
WWII nobility lost privileges, emperor no power, centuries-old lens of caste
Men dominate women in everyway, women in lower levels of corporate world
Classless Society? The Former Soviet Union
Russian Revolution, Karl Marx ideology , state control of economy, classless?
High government, soviet intelligentsia, scientists, physicians, manual labor
1989 Eastern Europe blamed poverty on Communist party. 1991 collapsed
China: Emerging Social Classes
1949 took control of farms, 1978 Mao died , new leaders allowed business
leaders to emerge, middle class country, returning students, well-connected
people.

Social Inequality
Theories of Social Inequality
Structural-Functional Theory: The Davis-Moore Thesis
Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of society.
Positions a society considers more important must offer enough rewards to
draw talented people .
Social-Conflict Theories: Karl Marx and Max Weber
Social stratification benefits some and disadvantage of others. Capitalistic
society reproduces the class structure in every generation.
Symbolic-Interaction Theory: Stratification in Everyday Life.
Conspicuous consumption: buying and using products because of the
statement they make about social position.

Social Inequality
Ch. 11 Social Class in the United States
• Key Terms
• Income
• wealth
• Intra-generational social mobility
• Inter-generational social mobility
Poverty ( relative, absolute, feminization)

Social Inequality
Dimensions of Social Inequality
The distribution of income and wealth in the US.
Income
Income: earnings from work or investments.
2013
median income $63,815,
top 20% median income $207,000,
bottom 20% an average of $16,000.
During recent decades income inequality has increased
Very rich people receive a much larger share of all incomes 2.7% to 9%
0.1 % earn 1,700,000 annually

Social Inequality
Wealth
• Wealth is the total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts is
distributed more unequally: stocks, bonds, and real estate
• The richest 20 % of US families own 89% of the country’s wealth
• In 2010, average family wealth has fallen to a level not seen since mid 1990s
• Family value reflect value of home, cars , investments, insurance policies,
retirement pensions, furniture, clothing, other personal property (-) minus the
home mortgage and credit cards or other debts.
• Lowest ranking 40% have little to no wealth

Social Inequality
• Power
Wealth important source of power. Small proportion of families control most of the
nation’s wealth also shapes agenda of the entire society. Such concentration of wealth
weakens democracy because political system serves the interest of the super-rich.
• Occupational Prestige
We evaluate each other according to work. Occupational prestige ranking is
the same in all nations, dominated by men, lowest goes to people of color.
• Schooling
In 2013, 88% finished high school, 32% finished college, prestige & schooling.

Social Inequality
U.S Stratification: Mert and Caste
How someone’s position at birth affects social standing later in life.
Ancestry
More than 1/3 of our country’s riches individuals , hundreds of millions, acquired
fortunes from inheritance.
Race and Ethnicity
Whites have higher occupational positions/ schooling than African Americans (AA).
Inequality in income $41,588 AA income vs $72, 624 by non-Hispanic whites.
Married couples earn more, larger single-parent families among AA.
People of English ancestry have most wealth and power. Median income Hispanics
was 42,269. (58%) of white income.
Gender
Women have less income, wealth, and occupational prestige. Single woman 2xs likely
to be poor than single male.

Social Inequality
Social Classes in the United States
Various social class positions in US. Society.
The Upper Class
Earn at least $217,000 a year (5%). Wealth is vast. Many are business owners, executives in
large corporation, senior government officials. Most white Anglo-Saxon Protestants.
Upper-Uppers: Blue Bloods (1%), birth & inheritance, volunteer work= networking.
Lower-Uppers: working rich, earn it, new rich not accepted in exclusive clubs
The Middle Class
Upper-middle: range $121,000-$217,000. Attend prestigious school and prestigious
careers.
Average –middle: $51, 000-$121,000, own homes and retirement investment
The Working Class
Lower-middle class: blue collar worker, $29,000- $51,000.Less personal satisfaction.
The Lower Class
Makes life insecure and difficult. Recessions increase lower class records.

Social Inequality
The Differences Class Makes
Social class position affects health, values, politics, and family life.
Health
Lower class 13x more likely to go without needed medical attention
Lower level of nutrition, more stressful environment, live 5 years less than affluent.
Values and Attitudes
Old people money not showoffs. New Rich have Conspicuous consumptions: Bling.
Affluent more tolerant of controversial behavior such as homosexuality.
Higher social standing experience more confidence in daily interaction=importance
Politics
Higher income lean toward Republicans, more involved in politics,
Family and Gender
Working class encourage children to conform to conventional norms and respect
authority. Upper class: develop talents through individuality and imagination. More
affluent couples are more egalitarian, same interest, & leisure activities.

Social Inequality
Social Mobility
Intra-generational social mobility: a change in social [position occurring
during a person’s lifetime
Inter-generational social mobility: upward or downward social mobility of
children in relation to their parents.
Research on Mobility
32% of US men have same type of work as fathers
37% have upward mobility
32% have downward mobility; white to blue collar
Horizontal social mobility: change jobs at same class level.
General Conclusions about social mobility in US
1) Past century mobility high.2) limited movement within one class level.3)
growth of white color jobs. 4) since 1970 mobility is uneven income rise and
fall. 5) Recession in 2007 middle class become smaller, keeping small level of
living standards has become more difficult. P. 277
.

Social Inequality
Social Mobility
Mobility by Income Level
Top 5% experienced the greatest increase (p. 278)
Mobility: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
White people more privileged, AA and Latinos lost incomes, women catching-up
Mobility and Marriage
Married and stay married 2xs more wealth.
The American Dream: Still a Reality
1) Earnings have stalled. 2) more jobs offer little income. 3) recession bring economic
decline. 4) young people are remaining at home.
The Global Economy and the US Class Structure
1960 had 28% of labor force in factories compared to 9% now. Global reorganization
good for stockholders.=(18 fold)

Social Inequality
Poverty and the Trend Toward Increasing Inequality
Patterns of poverty and increasing economic inequality in the US.
Relative poverty: The lack of resources of some people in relation to those
who have more
Absolute poverty: a lack of resources that is life-threatening.
The Extent of Poverty
2013: 45.3 million men,, women and children (14.5%) are poor
Relative poverty: family of four earning $23,834. ( 3xs what is spent on food) BUT
average was 59% of that or $14,000. Poverty less in 1960 (p.280)
Who are the Poor?
Age: generation ago, elderly most vulnerable, now pensions & gov. programs caused
rate to fall from 30 % to 9.5%. Children, young adults are poorest or 45.2% of
population are young people under 24 yo.

Social Inequality
Gender and Family Patterns:
Feminization of poverty: the trend of women making up an increasing proportion of
the poor. In 1960, 25 % of all poor household headed by women, it is now 51%
explains the trend.
Urban and Rural Poverty: highest concentration in cities (19%), suburbs (11.1%) while
the rural areas have high levels of poverty.
Explaining Poverty
One View: Blame the poor: high cultural value of self-reliance through talents and
efforts. Poor lack skills, schooling, and motivation. Culture of poverty: self-
perpetuating cycle. 1996 Congress changed welfare system.
Another View: Blame society; loss of jobs, little opportunity, blame victim

Social Inequality
The Working Poor
3.2 % of fulltime workers earn minimum wage $7.25 remain poor. ($11.46)
Is it effort and ability? No. low wages, female heads , isolated from cities.
Homelessness
578,400 in shelters, transitional housing. Cause do to company closing, women
escaping violence, rent increases, no stereotype paints a complete picture of the
homeless.
The trend toward increasing inequality
This is a country where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer(inequality)
Are the Very Rich Worth the Money?
Is income related to talent, ability, and effort? More doubt in rewards. CEO’s
get large rewards regardless of the company performance.

Social Inequality
Ch. 12 Global Stratification
• Key Terms
• Global stratification
• Colonialism
• Neocolonialism
• Modernization Theory
• Dependency theory

Social Inequality
Global Stratification: An Overview
Division of the world into high, middle, and low-income countries.
A Word About Terminology
Previous model called 1st, 2nd and 3rd worlds. Revised system to income levels
looks at economic development and not capitalist vs socialist.
High-Income Countries
High-income: the nations with the highest overall standard of living(GNI 15,000
per capita). Mostly in Northern Hemisphere, cultural differences, Capital
intensive, big factories, machinery and advanced technology.
Middle-Income Countries
Per capita income of $10, 525, 53% of the people live near cities, 70% of nations
are in this bracket. Ukraine, Georgia, and Turkmenistan eastern Europe were
socialist.
Low-Income Countries
Central & East Africa and Asia. A per Capita of less than 3500. 35% in cities.

Social Inequality
Global Wealth and Poverty
Patterns and explanation of poverty around the world.
The Severity of Poverty
Poverty more severe in poor countries.
People living in rich countries focus on relative poverty
People in poor countries focus on absolute poverty or a lack of life
threatening resources. Elevated threat of dying young, 1 in 10 children do not
survive to age of 5.
The Extent of Poverty
Typical adult in rich nations consume 3750 calories, low income 2769 calories
and hard labor. 25,000 a day die due to hunger or 9 million

Social Inequality
Poverty and Children
Families lack adequate food, safe water, secure housing, and medical care. In Low
income countries, 1/5 of children do not have adequate nutrition. Children beg, steal,
sell sex, or work for drug gangs to survive. Half of all street children found in Mexico
City and Rio de Janeiro.
Poverty and Women
Women work undervalues, in poor countries women work in sweatshops.
Women produce 70% of food men own 90% of land says a lot about
inequalities. No reproductive health care.
Slavery
Anti-Slavery International describe 5 types of slavery
1) Chattel: one person own another, Asia, Middle East and Africa. 2) slavery imposed
by state: China and their prisoners. 3)Child slavery: parents send children to beg or
forced daily labor. 4) debt bondage: employers charge employees for food and housing
5) servile forms of marriage: India, Thailand, some African nations, marry women off
against their will. Some forced prostitution.

Social Inequality
Explanations of Global Poverty
1) TECHNOLOGY: ¼ people in low income use human or animal muscle
2) POPULATION GROWTH: low income have highest birth rate and will have
highest population increases. Africa 1.1 billion to 2.5 billion by 2050
3) CULTURAL PATTERNS: traditions resist change
4) SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: Low income distribute wealth very unequally.
Greater in agrarian societies, Brazil 75% of farmland owned by 4% of
people.
5) GENDER INEQUALITY: improving social standing of women will raise
living standards.
6) GLOBAL POWER REALTIONSHIP : colonialism: the process by which some
nations enrich themselves through political and economic control of
other nations.
7) Multinational Corporation (neo-colonialism) economic exploitation .

Social Inequality
Theories of Global Stratification
Modernization Theory
A model of economic and social development that explains global inequality
in terms of technological and cultural differences between nations.
Historical perspective: affluence due to the spirit of capitalism created wealth
like never before, absolute poverty decreased like never before.
The importance of culture: Need cultural environment that emphasizes the
benefits of material wealth and new ideas.
Tradition is its greatest barrier. Technology a threat to their families, customs
and religious beliefs.
Protestant Reformation vs Catholic
Personal virtue and growing importance of individualism vs family and
community

Social Inequality
Rostow’s Stages of Modernization:
1. Traditional stage: Honor past, spiritually rich but lacking material goods
2. Take-off stage: use talent and imagination to spark economic growth. More
individualism.
3. Drive to technological maturity: newly educated see tradition as backward, social
position for women change, eroding traditional families and relationships less
personal.
4. High Mass consumption. People learn to need array of goods.
The Role of the Rich Nations
1.Controlling population: children no longer an economic asset, promote birth
control.
2. Increasing food production: export hybrid seeds, irrigations system, fertilizer and
pesticide control
3. Introducing industrial technology: to raise productivity
4. Providing foreign aid. Investment capital.

Social Inequality
Dependency Theory: model of economic and social development that
explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor
nations by rich ones.
Historical Perspective: nations became rich only because others became
poor. Global commerce.
The importance of colonialism: political liberation has not translated into
economic independence. Neocolonialism is the heart of the capitalistic world
economy. US gained control of Haiti, Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines, Hawaiian
Islands,part of Panama, and Guantanamo Bay.

Social Inequality
Wallerstein’s Capitalist World Economy: 500 ago, colonialism, Europeans gathered
wealth ( raw material)from the rest of the world, fueled the industrialism. Low income are
periphery of world economy. Support rich nations through cheap labor and vast market for
industrial products. Middle income are semi-periphery e.g India and Brazil.
1. narrow, export-orientated economics: multinational corporations
purchase raw material cheaply from poor societies and make a profit.
Coffee, palm oil, oil
2. Lack of industrial capacity: Buy raw material from poor , send home for
manufacture and sell to poor nation. Ex: India and cotton.
3. Foreign debit :staggering debit paralyzes a country.
The role of rich nations: Capitalistic cycle of poor nations exporting food for
profit, not people. United States encourages people to think of poverty as
inevitable because of tradition. World produces enough food for everyone to
become fat.

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