Injection Power Cycle - The most efficient power cycle
DC MOTOR
2. PURPOSE:
◦ To consider the machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy- the
ELECTRIC MOTOR.
GENERATOR is in operation, it is driven by a MECHANICAL MACHINE,
such as an ENGINE
WATER TURBINE
ELECTRIC MOTOR
the rotation through a magnetic field generates a voltage, w/c in turn, is
capable of producing a current in an electric circuit.
MOTOR is in operation, it is “fed” by an electric current from an
electrical source of supply.
-produces TWO STATIONARY MAGNETIC FIELDS
1. by the fields poles
2.by rotating armature
w/c react w/ each other to develop TORQUE, w/c in turn, produces
MECHANICAL ROTATION
3. LOAD ON A GENERATOR
-constitutes those electrical devices that convert electrical energy into
other forms of energy; loads such as
-electric lighting
-electric furnaces
-electrical welding
-electrical motors
-electric battery charging etc.
LOAD ON A MOTOR
-constitutes the force that tends to oppose rotation and called a
COUNTERTORQUE; loads such as
-fan blades -crushers -churns
-pumps -excavators -drills
-grinders -elevators -food mixers
-boring mills -turntables
-host of other commonly used machines
4. VOLTAGE OF A GENERATOR
-tends to change when the load changes;
SHUNT GENERATORS, a load increase is always accompanied
by a DROP IN TERMINAL VOLTAGE
COMPOUND GENERATORS, the voltage may fall, rise, or even
remain constant as the load changes.
can always be adjusted
1. changing the speed
2. changing the strength of the magnetic field
in either case, an increase in speed or flux is accomplished by an increase
in voltage.
5. SPEED OF ROTATION OF A D-C MOTOR
-tends to change as the load varies; as will be pointed out later, an
increase in load causes the speed of a shunt motor to drop slightly,
that of a compound to drop considerably, and that of a series motor
to drop very greatly.
can be changed by varying either or both of two
things
1.the strength of the magnetic field
2.the voltage impressed across the armature
terminals
in general, an increase in the flux decrease the speed, while a
higher armature voltage raises the speed.
6. GENERATORS
-operated in parallel w/ others to
supply power to a common load;
infrequently, they may be
connected in series for the same
purpose.
-started w/out electrical loads
MOTORS
-operated as single independent
units to drive their individual loads,
although in special applications
they may be connected in parallel
or in series for the purpose of
performing particular jobs at
varying speed.
-may or may not have a mechanical
load when they are started.
7. THREE GENERAL TYPES OF GENERATORS
◦ Series
◦ Shunt
◦ Compound
THREE GENERAL TYPES OF MOTORS
Series
Shunt
Compound
9. The speed of a motor can be controlled by an operator who makes a
manual adjustment ADJUSTABLE-SPEED TYPE.
NOTE:
VARIABLE SPEED
- the speed changes inherently as a result of a
modification of the loading conditions.
ADJUSTABLE SPEED
- the speed changes only because an operator or
automatic control equipment has made an adjustment
of some short.
CONSTANT-SPEED-ADJUSTABLE SPEED MOTOR
-a shunt motor w/ a field rheostat
VARIABLE-SPEED-ADJUSTABLE-SPEED MOTOR
-a series motor w/ a line rheostat; such as arrangement is used on a
hoist.
11. With the armature rotating as a result of motor action, the armature conductors
continually cut through the resultant stationary magnetic field, and because
of such flux cutting, voltage are generated in the very the same conductors
that experience forces action.
-when a motor is operating, it is simultaneously acting as a generator.
Motor action is stronger than generator action, for the direction of the flow of
current in the armature winding is fixed by the polarity of the source of
supply. The generated voltage does, however, oppose the impressed emf
and, in this respect, serves to limit the current in the armature winding to a
value just sufficient to take care of the power requirements of the motor.
12. COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (counter emf)
-generated voltage opposes the flow of current.
- never be equal to and must always be less than,
the voltage impressed across the terminals
because the direction in w/c the current flows determines first the direction of
rotation and thus the direction of the counter emf.
The armature current is controlled and limited by the counter emf.
Va – Ec Ia= armature current
Ia = Va= impressed voltage across
Ra armature winding
Ec= counter emf generated in armature
Ra= resistance of armature
13. Since the counter emf is a generated voltage, it depends, for a given
machine, upon two factors:
1. the flux per pole (0)
2. the speed of rotation (S) in revolutions per minute.
Ia =
Va – k S
Ra
0
14. At the instant a d-c motor is started, the counter emf (Ec) is ZERO because
the armature is not revolving.
As the armature accelerates to full speed, the value of Ec rises to a value
that causes the proper value of armature current (Ia) to flow; the proper
armature current is that required by the armature to permit it to drive its load
at speed S.
Since the counter emf (Ec) limits the current in the low-resistance armature
winding, it should be understood that at the instant of starting, when Ec is
ZERO, the armature current would be extremely high unless some
resistance were added to offset the lack of Ec.
15. If Ec is ZERO, or very small
As the motor is coming up to speed, a resistance must be inserted to
take the place of Ec.
As the speed increases, the resistance may be cut out gradually
because Ec rises.
When the motor has attained normal speed, all resistance can be cut
out of the armature circuit.
16. In order for DC motors to function properly, they must have some
special control and protection equipment associated with them. The
purposes of this equipment are:
1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the
equipment;
2. To protect the motor against damage from long-term overloads;
3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting
currents;
4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the operating
speed of the motor.
20. Motors must be started w/ the movable arm at a to be gradually moved to b
as the armature accelerates to full speed.
In the case of very small motors, usually the fractional-horsepower
sizes up to about ¾ hp, no starting resistor is necessary.
Such motors may be started by simply closing the line switch.
Two reasons for this practice:
1. The resistance and the inductance of the armature winding are
generally sufficient high to limit the initial rush of current to values that are
not particularly serious.
2. The inertia of a small armature is generally so low that it comes up
to speed very quickly, thereby minimizing the serious effect that might
otherwise result from high sustained current.
22. Three Point Starter
Starting Resistor(R)
Holding Coil
Soft Iron Keeper
Starter Arm
OFF
____________
____________
Shunt MotorField Rheostat
Main Switch To D-C
Source
a
b
b’
1
2
3
4
5
6
L F A
Fig. 5
23. Note:
◦ Terminal L must be connected to either side, positive or negative, of
the d-c source on the main switch (wire a)
◦ Terminal F is connected to one field to one field terminal on the motor
(wire b)
◦ Armature Terminal A must be connected to either one of the motor
armature terminals (wire c)
◦ The final connection must then be made from the second line terminal on
the main switch to a junction of the remaining two armature and field
terminals of the motor.
If it is desired that the speed of the motor be controlled, a field rheostat
should be inserted in series between the field terminal F on the box and
motor field terminal (wire b).
24. FUNCTION OF THE STARTER
1. if the power fails and the starter arm is not restored to the OFF
position, the motor might be damaged should the power come
on again
2. if the shunt field circuit were opened accidentally and the starter
arm did not return to the OFF position, the motor speed might
become dangerously high.
26. NOTE:
◦ The Main Circuit, in heavy lines, consists of the
variable resistors R and the armature.
◦ The second circuit includes the shunt field, the holding
coil, and the field rheostat.
◦ Last circuit, it should be noted that the current through
the field is the SAME current that flows through the
holding coil.
28. When the starter arm is on first stud, the line current divides into
THREE PARTS:
1. The main circuit is through the starting resistor (R), the
series field and the armature.
2. The second circuit is through the shunt field and its field
rheostat.
3. The third circuit is through the holding coil and a current-
protecting resistor(r).
NOTE: The arrangement permits any change in current in the shunt-field
circuit w/out affecting the current through the holding coil; in this regard it
overcomes the objection to the holding coil will always be sufficient and will
prevent the spiral spring from restoring the arm to the OFF position, no
matter how the field rheostat is adjusted.
29. Spiral Spring
Starter Arm
Soft Iron Keeper
Protecting
Resistor for
holding Coil
Holding
Coil
Main Switch
Compound Motor(long Shunt)
Field Rheostat
To D-C
Source
Starting Resistor(R)
2
1
3
4
5
6
L L- F A
r
OFF
Fig. 8
30. CONTROLLER
- whenever a starter is equipped w/ some means for varying the
speed of the motor to w/c it is connected.
-may be also designed to permit reversing the direction of rotation
and may include protective features such as overload relays,
undervoltage relays, and open-field devices.
-a device used in connection w/ the starting of a series motor
because it usually serves also for reversing and speed-control
purposes.
31. FIG. 98:
As the resistance is cut in, the speed increases; also, at a comparatively
high speed, the field must be weakened considerably. Should the motor be
stopped w/ a high value of field resistance and then started again before the
rheostat is set at the all-out position, the motor would attempt to start too
rapidly; furthermore, the motor would draw an excessive armature current to
compensate for the low field current because the required load torque
depends upon the product of both the flux and the armature current.
32. Soft Iron
Copper Wiper
Field
Rheostat Arm
Armature
Resistor Arm
Holding Coil
Copper Segment
Protecting Resistor
Main Switch
Compound Motor(short-shunt)
Series Shunt
Shunt FieldTo D-C Power
L L- A F
1
2
3 4 5
6
Field Rheostat
Starting Resistor(R)
OFF
h
r
a b
c
Fig. 9
33. Operations of controller:
1. There are two arms, the longer one moving over a set of field-rheostat
contact points (upper) and the shorter one moving over a set of armature-
resistor contacts.
2. The handle for moving both arms clockwise simultaneously is on the
upper arm.
3. The spiral spring is fastened to the armature-resistor arm only.
4. A copper wiper is mounted on the armature-resistor arm and wipes over
a copper segment as it moves forward.
5. In the final position of the armature-resistor arm, the copper wiper makes
contact w/ one end of the holding coil at point h, the copper wiper leaving
the copper segment.
6. In the final position, the armature-resistor arm is held by the holding coil,
while the field-rheostat arm is free to be moved counterclockwise to any
point on the field.
34. Automatic starting of motors is preferable to manual operation because, when
properly designed and adjusted, the starting resistor are timed to be cut out
so that the acceleration is uniform and the maximum allowable armature
current is not exceeded.
Manual Starters, although cheaper, may be operated improperly at times,
in w/c case damage may be done to both motor and starter..
35. Relays – 1AX, 2AX,
3AX
Contactors – M, 1A,
2A, 3A
OL- oevrload
ll – normally open
contacts
ll – normally closed
contacts
Shunt Field
Interpole Field
OL
OL
R1 R2 R3
1A 2A 3A
M
1AX
2AX
3AX
M1
Start
Stop
1A
2A
3A
1AX
2AX
3AX
Fig 10
36. The COUNTER-EMF method, the shunt motor is started by pressing
the START BUTTON. This energizes the main contactor (M), w/c
instantly closes the auxiliary contacts M1 ( to seal the START
BUTTON) and the main contacts M. The motors then starts w/
resistors R1, R2, and R3 in series in the armature circuit.
NOTE:
Relays 1AX, 2AX, and 3AX are connected across the
armature terminals, where the voltage drop changes as
the motor accelerates; since these relays are adjusted
to pick up at preset and increasingly larger values of
voltage, contacts 1AX, 2AX, and 3AX will close in a definite
sequence.
37. Relay – CR
Contactor- M, 1A,
2A, 3A
ll – normally open
contacts
ll – normally closed
contacts
OL- overload
Shunt Field Field Rheostat
3A
3A
3A
3A
R1 R2 R3
1A
1A
1A
2A
2A
2A
OL
M
Series Field
CR
CR1
CR2
T.C.
T.C.
T.C.
T.C.
M1
M2
r
Stop
Start
I.F.
Fig. 11
38. There are a group of three contactors 1A, 2A, and 3A, each of w/c has
one pair of simultaneously closing contacts across a block of
armature resistance and another pair of timed contacts that
close w/ a time delay after the coil is energized.
39. Series Relays- SR1,
SR2, SR3
Contactors- M, 1A,
2A, 3A
ll –normally open
contacts
ll – normally closed
contacts
OL- overload relay
Shunt Field
Series Field
OL
OL
I.F.
R1R2R3
ll
3A
3A
2A
2A
1A
1A
SR1
SR1
SR2
SR2
SR
3
SR3
2A
1AM2
M1
Start
Stop
M
M
Fig. 12
40. The current-limit acceleration starter is in another way,
depending for the motor’s increase in speed upon the current slowly
when the load is heavy and more rapidly under light-load conditions.
NOTE: There are three relays, SR1, SR2, SR3, and three contactors,
1A, 2A, 3A.
41. When a generator delivers electrical power to a load, its
terminal voltage tends to change.
Electric motor generally receives its electrical power (E X I) at
substantially constant voltage.
It is then converts this electrical power into mechanical power, by
doing so by developing torque as it rotates its mechanical load.
42. When a load is applied to a motor, the natural tendency of the latter is to slow down
because the opposition to motion is INCREASED.
-the counter emf DECREASES, for the reason that Ec is proportional to the speed.
This reduction in the speed immediately results in an increase in armature current
this increase in armature current must be exactly that required by the motor to
drive the increased load because any increase in mechanical driving
power must be met by a corresponding increase in electrical power
in put to the armature.
Electrical power input = Va x Ia
Ia must increase, for the reason that Va is substantially constant.
Va – Ec
Ia =
Ra
43. TWO CHANGES IN LOADING A MOTOR:
1. a reduction in speed
2. an increase in armature current
NORMAL SPEED
-the speed at w/c a motor operates when it is
driving its rated load, its so-called rated
horsepower.
44. The TORQUE developed by a motor, i.e., the tendency of a motor to produce
rotation, depends on two factors:
1. the flux created by the main poles
2. the current flowing in the armature winding
The torque is independent of the speed rotation.
T = k X O X Ia lb-ft
Where:
T = torque (lb –ft)
o = flux per pole (maxwells)
Ia = total armature current
k = proportionality constant
46. Shunt Motor
The torque of a shunt motor
depends only upon the
armature current; assuming
that the shunt-field current is
not changed by field-rheostat
adjustment, the torque is
independent of the flux
Ish
Ia
Il
Fig. 14
47. Series Motor
The torque developed by a series
motor depends upon the armature
current and the flux that this
current produces in passing
through the series field.
AT LIGHT LOADS:
when the magnetic circuit iron is net
saturated, the field flux is directly
proportional to the load current.
T= k( k2Ia) X Ia = k2Ia
2
AT THE HEAVY LOADS:
when the magnetic circuit iron is
saturated, the flux will change very
little or not at all w/ changes in Fig. 15
load.
Ia
Fig. 15
48. Compound Motor (long-
shunt)
The torque of a compound motor
(cumulative only, where the
shunt-field and series-field
ampere-turns aid each other)
combines the torque-load
characteristics of the shunt
and series-motor. As the load
on the motor increases, the
armature, or load, current
passing through the series
field creates flux that adds to
the constant shunt- field flux.Ish
Ia
Il
Fig. 16
50. 1. The speed of a shunt motor rises about 2 to 8 percent when the
rated load is completely removed
2. The speed of a compound motor rises approximately 10 to 25
percent when the rated load is completely removed.
3. The speed of a series motor rises very rapidly when the load is
removed and must
Therefore, always drive some load if it is to prevented from racing
dangerously, i.e., “running away”.
S = rpm
Va –Ia Ra
k O
51. 1.The speed of a shunt
motor is substantially
constant and has a very
definite no-load value.
2. The speed of a compound
motor varies considerably
and also has a very
definite no-load value.
3. The series motor operates
over an extremely wide
speed range and tends to
“run away” at light
loads--- it should never be
used w/ a belt drive or
when the load is such that
the torque might drop to
approximately 15 percent
of the full-load torque.
S
p
e
e
d
r
p
m
Rated Hp
Hp output
Rated Speed
--- Maximum Safe Speed
Fig. 18
52. per cent speed regulation=
The greater the countertorque, the lower the speed.
Shunt motors are generally regarded as constant-speed motors because their percent
speed regulation is very small.
Compound motors are properly considered to be variable-speed motors because their
percent speed regulation is comparatively high.
Snl - Sfl
Sfl
X 100
53. Whenever the variable series-field ampere-turns of a compound motor
“buck” the constant shunt-field ampere-turns, the total flux tends to
diminish w/ increasing values of load.
AT LIGHT LOADS: the series-field current is low, so that it has little
demagnetizing effect upon the shunt field.
AT HEAVY LOADS: the series-field current is comparatively high, w/c means
that the demagnetizing series may be considerable.
54. THREE DIFFERENT WAYS OF ADJUSTING THE SPEED:
1. inserting a field rheostat in the shunt-field circuit of a shunt or
compound motor
2. inserting a resistance in the armature circuit of a shunt,
compound, or series motor
3. varying the voltage across the armature circuit of a shunt or
compound motor while, at the same time, maintaining constant the
voltage across the shunt field
56. Wiring connections
of a WARD
LEONARD
variable-voltage
system of control
for a shunt motor
To A-C source
separately-excited
controlled motor
separately-excited
controlling generator
A-C driving
motor for
controlling
generator and
controlled motor
coupling
field
rheostat
exciter for
controlling
generator and
generated
controlled motor
Fig. 21
57. Arrangement of machines
and wiring connections of
WARD LEONARD
method of control.
haft
echanical
ad
Fig. 22
58. NOTE: the
fundamental
interconnection of
the two armatures of
the main machines-
called loop circuit.
A-C driving
motor
Main exciter
Control Rheostat
I.F
I.F
Controlling
generator
Intermediate
exciter
Gen. Field
Va Loop
Motor Field
Controlled
motor
-
+
Fig. 23
59. The controlling generator
is driven by a prime
mover, usually a
constant-speed a-c
motor, and the speed
control of the controlled
motor is affected by
shunting the series field
of the generator w/ a
variable resistance.
Rheostat
Series Field Loop
generator
I.F.I.F.
I
Series Field
Motor
Fig. 24
60. OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM:
1. The terminal voltage of a series generator
(operating at constant speed) depends upon the
series-field current or excitation, and this, in
turn, is a function of the loop(or laod) current, or
as here, of that part of the current that is not
shunted.
2. The speed of a series motor varies inversely as
the load, w/c in turn, also depends upon the loop
current
61. Since the characteristics curves of the two series machines are complementary, in
the sense that a generator-current rise attempts to increase the motor speed
(the voltage is higher), while the same motor-current rise has an inverse effect
upon the speed, the resulting action is to keep the motor speed constant, for a
given rheostat setting.
Where: RM = equivalent resistance of motor
OM = flux produced by motor
But:
V= Eg –I Rg
Where: Eg = generated voltage of generator
Rg = equiv. resistance of generator
SM =
V - I RM
K OM
62. The magnetic neutral tends to shift when a motor
is loaded. The reason for this tendency is the
fact that the armature current creates a
magnetic filed of its own, apart from that created
by the stationary poles, the magnetic axis of w/c
is exactly halfway between the centers of the
main poles.
65. TWO GENERAL METHODS:
1. changing the direction of current flow through the armature
2. changing the direction of current flow through the field circuit
on circuits.
The direction of rotation of a D-C motor cannot be reversed by interchanging
the connections to the starting switch, because this reverses the current
flow through both the armature and the field.
66. The reversing switch is connected to
the shunt field
The reversing switch is connected to
the armature
Ia
--
+
+
Reversing Switch
Reversing SwitchIsh
Fig. 26
68. F- forward contactor
R- reversing contactor
1A,2A-contacts
T-timing relay
CR- control relay
T.C.- time closing
contacts
Fig. 28
69. NOTE:
1. It is provided w/ two acceleration contactors and
resistors, designated by 1A, 2A and R1, R2
2. Arrangement is made for ARMATURE
REVERSING through forward contacts F and
reversing contacts R.
3. The push-button station is equipped w/ FOR and
REV button, each of w/c, when pressed, closes
one set of contacts and simultaneously opens
another set.