CSE 578: Data Visualization Individual Contribution Report This is Milestone 4 of your course project. You will write a 2-3 page report detailing your individual contribution to your team project. Directions Your report should include the following: 1. Reflection: What was your overall role in the team development process? What did you specifically work on and contribute to? 2. Lessons Learned: What wisdom would you share with others regarding design methods and how best to apply them, and/or suggested "design practices" to keep in mind for future design projects? 3. Assessment/Grading: Was an honest effort made to learn from experience and to identify how the lessons learned extend beyond this project? 4. Future Application: What skills have you learned in this course that you will apply in the future in other MCS courses, or in the workplace? Submission Directions for Checkpoint Deliverables Upload your Individual Contribution Report as a file to the submission space in the wrap-up section of the week it is due. This is an individual submission. Grading Criteria 0 1 2 Reflection There is no reflection included. The reflection attempts to demonstrate thinking about learning but is vague and/or unclear about the personal learning process. The reflection explains the student’s own thinking and learning processes, as well as implications for future learning. 1 Lessons Learned No lessons were learned about the design methods or visualizations used in this project. Some lessons were learned about the design methods or visualizations used in this project, but they are poorly defined or lack understanding of application. Lessons were learned about the design methods and visualizations used in this project, and they are clearly defined and demonstrate understanding of application. 2 -3- Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors Cynthia Crawford The purpose of this chapter is to: • Summarize the most commonly used counseling theories used in schools • Reflect on one's personal theory of counseling as a school counselor-in-training • Apply theory to school-related case studies The school connselor's approach to counseling is influenced by one or more theoretical orienta- tions. There exists a plethora of theoretical approaches within the counseling field, some represent- ing an extension of preexisting theories of personality development and others expressing a reaction against earlier systems of thought. Overall, counseling theories explain (a) why people live productive or unproductive lives and (b) how to assist people in changing aspects within themselves that seem counterproductive (Hackney & Cormier, 2009). Regardless of one's theoretical orientation, knowl- edge of counseling theory is ctitical in accurately assessing and conceptualizing a counselee's case. Choosing a theoretical foundation is guided by the counselor's phenomenological and philosophical views from affective, cognitive, behav ...

1. CSE 578: Data Visualization
Individual Contribution Report
This is Milestone 4 of your course project. You will write a 2-3
page report detailing your
individual contribution to your team project.
Directions
Your report should include the following:
1. Reflection: What was your overall role in the team
development process? What did you
specifically work on and contribute to?
2. Lessons Learned: What wisdom would you share with others
regarding design
methods and how best to apply them, and/or suggested "design
practices" to keep in
mind for future design projects?
3. Assessment/Grading: Was an honest effort made to learn
from experience and to
identify how the lessons learned extend beyond this project?
4. Future Application: What skills have you learned in this
course that you will apply in the
future in other MCS courses, or in the workplace?
Submission Directions for Checkpoint Deliverables
Upload your Individual Contribution Report as a file to the

2. submission space in the wrap-up
section of the week it is due. This is an individual submission.
Grading Criteria
0 1 2
Reflection There is no reflection
included.
The reflection attempts
to demonstrate thinking
about learning but is
vague and/or unclear
about the personal
learning process.
The reflection explains
the student’s own
thinking and learning
processes, as well as
implications for future
learning.
1
Lessons
Learned
No lessons were
learned about the
design methods or
visualizations used in
this project.

3. Some lessons were
learned about the
design methods or
visualizations used in
this project, but they
are poorly defined or
lack understanding of
application.
Lessons were learned
about the design
methods and
visualizations used in
this project, and they
are clearly defined and
demonstrate
understanding of
application.
2
-3-
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors
Cynthia Crawford
The purpose of this chapter is to:
• Summarize the most commonly used counseling theories used
in schools
• Reflect on one's personal theory of counseling as a school

4. counselor-in-training
• Apply theory to school-related case studies
The school connselor's approach to counseling is influenced by
one or more theoretical orienta-
tions. There exists a plethora of theoretical approaches within
the counseling field, some represent-
ing an extension of preexisting theories of personality
development and others expressing a reaction
against earlier systems of thought. Overall, counseling theories
explain (a) why people live productive
or unproductive lives and (b) how to assist people in changing
aspects within themselves that seem
counterproductive (Hackney & Cormier, 2009). Regardless of
one's theoretical orientation, knowl-
edge of counseling theory is ctitical in accurately assessing and
conceptualizing a counselee's case.
Choosing a theoretical foundation is guided by the counselor's
phenomenological and philosophical
views from affective, cognitive, behavioral, and relational
perspectives (Hackney & Cormier, 2009).
Both the counselee and counselor come to the counseling
situation with a unique background of
cultural experiences, which influence the counselor-counselee
relationship, the counseling process,
and interventions that may therapeutically meet the needs of the
counselee. Because no one particu-
lar theory is best suited for all counselees, it is incumbent upon
the counselor to choose a theoretical
approach that best fits the needs of the connselee in terms of
personality factors, background experi-
ences, and cultural milieu (Corey, 2009a).
This chapter provides a general overview of unique contextual
aspects within schools that may

5. influence theoretical orientation and counseling theories
frequently employed in school counsel-
ing settings, including person-centered counseling, reality
therapy, cognitive behavioral approaches,
solution-focused brief counseling, narrative therapy, and
creative counseling approaches such as
art, play, and music.
Contextual Aspects of Schools
Schools provide a unique environment in which to provide
counseling. Although some of the
aspects unique to schools are more thoroughly discussed in
Chapters 2 and 13, it is important to
consider the distinctive aspects of the school environment that
impact school counselors' choice
of theoretical orientation. Some of these aspects include
children and adolescents as counselees,
scope of school counselor responsibilities, and students' time
availability. First, school personnel's
primary aim is to educate children. Because school counselors
focus their counseling energies pri-
marily on children and adolescents, developmental issues
influence choice of theoretical orientation.
Second, school counselors are responsible for many tasks and
activities. These responsibilities limit
the amount of energy and time the school counselor has
available for counseling. School counselors
may not have the resources or time to adequately counsel
students who present significant mental
health issues, or who require unavailable resources or intensive
ongoing counseling. The third aspect
31

6. 32 A Guide to Practicun1 and Internship for School Counselors-
in-Training
is the students' time availability. Studeuts are in school to be
educated. Excessive time spent in the
school counseling office can take away from time spent in the
classroom. In some cases, excessive
counseling during school hours may impede upon a students'
classroom time. These contextual con-
siderations must be factored in when school counselors choose a
counseling theory or theories.
Each of the following sections provides a brief summary of
theories common to school settings,
describes some unique characteristics of each approach, and
indicates populations with whom each
theory has been successfully applied. The following
descriptions are not meant to exhaustively
explain the tenets of any one particular theory, because you
have undoubtedly already taken a class
exclusively on counseling theories. However, this chapter
serves as a reference when counseling with
school-aged youth.
Person-Centered Counseling
Carl Rogers, the founder of person-centered counseling,
developed it as an approach to counsel-
ing that emphasizes the counselee's inner ability to be aware of
and solve his or her own problems
(Monte & Sollod, 2003). Person-centered counseling represents
a reaction against earlier, psycho-
dynamic theories that viewed the counselor as an expert and
interpreter of an individual's emotional
distress. Through this nondirective approach, a collaborative

7. relationship between the counselor and
counselee is established that is critical to the success of therapy
(Rogers, 1951). Rogers's approach
challenged the assumption that "the counselor knows best" and
that counselees are unable to unde1c
stand and resolve tbeir problems without direct help on the part
of a counselor. In contrast, person-
centered counseling compares therapy to a journey shared by
two equally fallible individuals and
contends that counselees are capable of self-directed growth in
the presence of an unconditionally
accepting counselor-counselee relationship (Corsini & Wedding,
2005a).
Rogers believed the focus of counseling should be on the person
rather than the problem, that all
people strive for self-actualization, and that the ultimate goal of
counseling is congruence between
the person's true inner self and his or her perceived self. On the
part of the counselor, Rogers advo-
cated for unconditional positive regard or nonjudgmental
acceptance of the counselee; a genuine,
unpretentious presentation of congruence; and accurate
empathic understanding. The counselor
seeks to understand the counselee's own phenomenological
world and feels to the greatest extent
possible, the emotions experienced by the counselee (Monte &
Sollod, 2003).
Person-centered counseling skills include attentive listening and
reflecting feeling, or helping
the counselee to find the words to describe his or her feelings.
The counselor's empathic response
to the counselee's feelings may reveal fragments of the real self
that have remained hidden for
some time, bring these pieces of the real self to the counselee's

8. awareness, and promote congruence
between the perceived and real self (Monte & Sollod, 2003).
Overall, the counselor works to provide
a warm, respectful, genuine, and caring environment in which
self-actualization may occur, thus
allowing the counselee to problem solve independent of advice
or interpretation on the part of the
counselor. A central tenet of Rogers's theory was that
couuselees, including students, have the neces-
sary means in themselves to resolve their own challenges, and
that the counselor is responsible for
establishing a therapeutic setting to enable clients to realize
they have the ability for self-change and
to "attain this insight themselves" (Monte & Sollod, 2003, p.
474).
Rogers once stated, "Every individual exists in a continually
changing world of which he is the
center" (1951, p. 483). Rogers viewed human nature from a
positive perspective and contended that
each individual has the power to heal the self when provided the
proper psychological conditions, as
described earlier. His theory emphasizes human worth and
dignity, as well as the personal freedom
to be, to choose, and to act (Monte & Sollod, 2003).
l
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 33
Person-centered connseling has been applied in a number of
conntries and in numerous multicul-
tural settings. The role a counselor takes in setting aside
personal values, thus completely accepting

9. and identifying with those of the connselee, enhances the
applicability of the approach with diverse
populations (Sharf, 2008a). The person-centered approach has
been applied with individuals, groups,
and families. Basic tenets of the approach are frequently
employed in educational settings from
elementary to graduate school. With its emphasis on a warm,
caring counselor-connselee connec-
tion, the approach is particularly applicable in crisis
intervention, including traumatic disasters,
extreme illness, unplanned pregnancies, and grief (Corsini &
Wedding, 2005a).
ACTIVITY 3.1
Conduct a role-play using the following scenario with a partner.
One person will play the
role of a person-centered counselor using the philosophical
approach described earlier, and
the other person will role play the counselee described next.
Ella is a fourth-grade student in a rural school that has few
resources, poorly paid person-
nel, and nonexistent mental health agencies. The closest facility
that provides counseling
is in a city that is located nearly one hour away. Ella arrives in
the counselor's office upset,
crying, and incapable of talking about the issue that brought her
to the office. It seems
that her mother, her primary caregiver, was arrested the night
before due to charges of
drug use and abuse. Ella was sent to live with her grandparents,
who live a few blocks
away, until her mother is arraigned. Ella's grandparents care
about Ella, but have physical
difficulties that prevent them from caring for her appropriately.

10. Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of
the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the
counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play Ella. What were some of
the aspects of this coun-
seling approach that you think assisted the counseling process?
Detracted from the counsel-
ing process?
Reality Therapy or Choice Theory
William Glasser developed reality therapy in the early 1960s
following his work with institution-
alized delinquent adolescent girls. Presented within a friendly,
collaborative counselor-counselee
relationship, the essence of reality therapy, based on choice
theory, is self-responsibility, or leading
the counselee to take responsibility for his or her life choices
(Corey, 2009b). Glasser (2001, 2005)
proposed five basic essential psychological needs: survival,
love and belonging, power or achieve-
ment, freedom or independence, and fun. Individuals, according
to Glasser, choose their behaviors
in response to the quality of relationships they experience and
in an attempt to meet their perceived
needs. Reality therapy suggests the underlying issue for a
troubled counselee is an absence or lack of
satisfaction with a significant interpersonal relationship.
Therefore, as a counselor, you can facilitate
a significant relationship with your student counselee.
In treating counselees for emotional disturbance, Glasser
considers psychiatric symptoms to

11. represent behaviors cho.sen in an attempt to meet needs
stemming from an ineffective relation-
ship. Therefore, according to Glasser, most diagnoses of mental
illness are inaccurate. In working
with counselees, Glasser frequently converts diagnostic
descriptors such as depression, anxiety, and
34 A Guide to Practicuni and Internship for School Counselors-
in-Training
phobia into verb forms, expressed as depressing, anxietizing,
and phobicing, thus implying the indi-
vidual chooses the behavioral symptom and enacts it within his
or her life (Sharf, 2008b).
According to Glasser (1990), an individual's total behavior
consists of doing, thinking, feeling, and
physiology, a concept he often illustrated in a diagram of a car.
In this illustration, an individual's
basic needs (survival, belonging, power, freedom, and fun) form
the engine of the car. The ind.i-
vidual's wants are responsible for steering the car. The rear
wheels represent the individual's feelings
and physiology, two components over which there is less
control. The front wheels, controlled by the
steering "wants," represent doing and thinking, and suggest a
greater degree of choice and personal
control. According to Glasser, behavioral change results in the
individual changing what he or she
thinks or does, which in turns brings about emotional as well as
physiological change (Shatf, 2008b).
The goals of reality therapy, therefore, are to meet one's needs
by taking control of life choices.

12. Strategies employed by reality therapists to bring about change
include questioning, optimism, humor,
confrontation, and paradoxical techniques. In assessing the
counselee's status in· meeting his or her
needs in a realistic manner, the reality therapist may employ the
WDEP system (Wubbolding, 2004):
W =Wants: What do you want to be and do? Your mental
picture of yourself.
D = Doing and direction: What are you doing? Where do you
want to go?
E =Evaluation: Is what you are doing now working for you? Is
it getting yon what you want?
P =Planning: A plan to get you where you want to be, often
represented by the acronym SAMIC:
S · = Simple and specific
A = Attainable
M = Measurable
I = Immediate and involved
C = Controlled and commitment (includes use of a contract)
In reality therapy, the counselor and counselee work
collaboratively in creating a plan that the
counselee believes will realistically meet his or her needs.
Therefore, this counseling approach
involves teaching individuals to make choices that will lead to
desired outcomes and meet their ueeds
through interpersonal relationships, with the counselor-
counselee relationship critically important
for this teaching-learning process to be successful (Sharf,
2008b; Wubbolding, 2004).
Glasser has written a number of books applying his theory to
educational settings. They include
Schools Without Failure (1969) and The Quality School (1998).

13. Reality therapy is quite popular in
middle and high scho9l settings, but may be used across all
grade levels by teachers, administrators,
and school counselors (Sharf, 2008b).
ACTIVITY 3.2
Using the WDEP system (Wubbolding, 2004) with a partner,
conduct a role-play including a
counselor and a counselee using the following scenarios.
a. A 12th-grade student who is having difficulty with career
plans
b. A 7th-grade male who is being bullied by his peers
c. A 3rd grader who is having prohlems getting along with her
sister
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of
the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the
counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play the student counselee.
What were some of the aspects
of this counseling approach that assisted the counseling
process? Detracted from the counsel-
ing process?
-,,.
'fi
I
t
t
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 35

14. Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Cognitive behavioral approaches include the works of Albert
Ellis (2004a, 2004b), who devel-
oped rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and Aaron Beck
(1976, 1987), who founded cogni-
tive therapy (CT). Each of these models combines principles
from cognitive and behavioral theories
into shorHerm therapy approaches, which are popular treatment
techniqnes in clinical as well as
school counseling settings (Corey, 2009c).
Eiiis's (2004a, 2004b) REBT is based on the premise that one's
interpretation of life events influ-
ences emotional and behavioral responses within the
environment. Hence, by changing the inter-
pretation or the way we think about life situations, we also
change how we feel and what we do in
response to our thinking. Ellis focused on altering absolutist
thinking, typically represented by the
words must, ought, and should. He contended that emotional
problems are largely a result of mis-
taken beliefs and may be rectified by recognizing the irrational
nature of one's thinking, disputing
such irrational cognitions, and replacing these thoughts with
more rational and effective thinking.
Rational emotive behavior therapy, directive and educational in
nature, stresses thinking, judg-
ing, deciding, analyzing, and doing (Corey, 2009c; Sharf,
2008c). The counselor's role in REBT is to
help the counselee realize the irrationality of mistaken beliefs,
which will later be replaced by more
functional thoughts and behaviors through experiential
activities and behavioral homework assign-

15. ments to reinforce the newly acquired behaviors.
Beck (1976, 1987) developed his theory of counseling, referred
to as cognitive therapy (CT), after
working with individuals suffering from depression. Although
he and Ellis did not work together
in developing their approaches, similarities are noted. Both
require active involvement on the part
of the counselee, are directive, time limited, present focused,
structured, collaborative, and employ
situation-specific problem identification. Differences include
terminology and emphasis on empiri-
cism to a greater degree in CT than REBT, with CT applying
more structure within the counseling
process and REBT using more confrontation during counseling
(Corey, 2009c).
Those who are associated with CT credit emotional instability
to cognitive distortions, which lead
to a negative bias in thinking. Common cognitive distortions
include all-or-nothing thinking, mind
reading, catastrophizing, overgeneralization, labeling and
mislabeling, magnification and minimi-
zation, and personalization, among others (Sharf, 2008c).
Treatment involves a collaborative effort
between the counselor and counselee to identify dysfunctional,
distorted thinking, and challenge
ACTIVITY 3.3
With a partner, conduct a role-play of the following situation
using a cognitive behavioral
approach.
A parent of one of your fifth graders comes to see you because
she is concerned that her
son, Kyle, is gay. According to Kyle's mom, he is not interested

16. in sports or any type of
physical activity that is typical for boys his age. Kyle,
according his mother, is quiet and
prefers to play dolls with his sister. Kyle's mom further states
that it is her fault because
she divorced his father when he was baby and as a result of not
having a male figure in the
home, Kyle is suffering the consequences.
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of
the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the
counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play Kyle's mom. What were
some of the aspects of this
counseling approach that assisted the counseling process?
Detracted from the counseling
process?
I
11
~
I
I
li
'
''
I' I

17. .1
36 A Guide to Practiclun and Internship for School Counselors-
in-Training
such cognitions by asking questions such as "What is the
evidence for the belief?" (Sharf, 2008c
p. 349). Counselees may participate in activities such as
journaling, record keeping, self-monitorin;
b•
and thought recognition as a means of examining the accuracy
of their cognitions. When counselees
develop an awareness of their cognitive distortions, they may
again work collaboratively with the coun-
selor to restructure their thinking and improve their problem-
solving and coping skills (Corey, 2009c;
Sharf, 2008c). Treatment strategies include behavioral
rehearsal, role-play, and homework assign-
ments for continued practice of positive cognitions and
behaviors (Corsini & Wedding, 2005b).
Cognitive behavioral approaches have been applied successfully
with children and adults demon-
strating general anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders,
obsessive disorders, and substance
abuse (Corey, 2009c; Corsini & Wedding, 2005b; Sharf, 2008c).
The brief, didactic nature of CT and
REBT make them popular approaches among school counseling
interventions.

18. Solution
-Focused Brief Counseling
Similar to the person-centered counseling approach, solution-
focused brief counseling, or solu-
tion-focused therapy, is based on the assumption that everyone
experiences problems and has within
himself or herself the strength to implement the needed
change(s) to solve such difficulties. The
overall goal of the counseling process is collaborative
construction of solutions between the coun-
selee and counselor (Downing & Harrison, 1992). Earlier,
traditional counseling models focused
exclusively on the problem, followed by assessment to identify
possible origins of the difficulty.
Treatment was then designed to remediate the inadequacies of
the counselee in relating to the prob-
lem (Murphy, 1997), inherently conveying to the counselee that
something is wrong with him or
her.