A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf

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Modern Power Plants training book in english khalid ayaz soomro

A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf

••
K
KhalidAyaz3
Ingenieurwesen

Modern Power Plants training book in english khalid ayaz soomro

A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf

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CENTRAL POWER GENERATION CO. LTD GENCO-II
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS
BY KHALID AYAZ SOOMRO INSTRUCTOR OPERATION CLASSES AND (INTERN SHIP ENGINEERS) GENCO’S TRAINING CENTER CPGCL TPS, GUDDU
Acknowledgement All the praise and thanks to the most Beneficent and Gracious the greatest Lord “Almighty Allah” who blessed me with potential and ability to contribute a material to existing knowledge. I pay all my tributes to the Holy Prophet Hazrat Mohammad (S.A.W.W)
Who enlightened our conscious, who is torch of guidance for all humanity, who is the city of knowledge, All and every respect is for Hazrat Mohammad (S.A.W.W) who enables us to recognize our creator (STAY BLESSED MY AMI ,ABUAND MY LOVELY FAMILY )
*EMERGENCY CAN BE OCCURRED AT ANY TIME AND NEVER CAN BE OCCURED
CONTENTS: Fire Safety Health Fist Aid Introduction to Power plants Basic concept of modern power plants Conventional Power Plants Non-conventional Power Plants Combined cycle power plant Combined Cycle Principles of Operation Ccpp Advantages Ccpp Abstract Gas turbine for power Generation Introduction and Parts Gas Turbine Performance Gas Turbine Theory Static Frequency Converter(SFC) load-commutated- inverter (LCI) Aerodynamic Torque Converter for Gas Turbines Definition of torque converter Advantages of gas turbine Gas turbine cooling and sealing air Gt blades material Gas turbine starting procedure Q and A /Efficiency Compressor surge Bryton Cycle Gas turbine compressor washing Turbine inlet air cooling system (types) Mee Industries(Mee Fogg) Gas Turbine Protections Gas Turbine Fire Protection What is normal air/fuel ratio? Kinds of Gas Turbine Loading HRSG (Heat Recovery Steam Generator) HRSG circulations (types) Supplementary firing (HRSG) Parts of HRSG
Protections of HRSG Types of HRSG Typical Application of HRSG HRSG star up pre checks HRSG Startup Program Boiler /Steam Generator Types of boiler Boiler Zones Parts of Boiler Types of Boiler System Boiler system controls Purging of Boiler Boiler Fittings and Abbreviations Boiler Excess Air Control Energy Types of Energy Boiler Furnace Types of Furnace s Boiler Combustion system Fuels and Combustion Fossil Fuels Fuel Gas Fuel Oil(heavy Oil) Fuel Coal Gross calorific values of different fuels Boiler system major components Boiler Drum Drum Internals Stresses in Tubes and Drums Super Heaters Design and Performance Steam temperature control methods in supper heater Attemperation / De super Heater Economizer Air Pre Heater Stacks / Chimney Types of draft. Boiler Water Circulation Types Safety Valves Boiler Internal inspection
Ratio of heat absorbed by different compenents placed in the foue gases path De Aerator and Types Economizer Air Pre Heater Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage Auxiliary steam distribution Dew Point Hydrostatic Test of Boiler Boiler safety Interlocks Creating Your Boiler Log Pumps and its Types Condensate System Feed water Heaters Condensate Polishing Systems Desalination Plants Applications History Experimental Techniques Other desalination techniques Steam Traps Essentials of steam power plant equipment Steam Condensers and types Vacuum loss conditions Common condenser problems Condenser terminal difference Condenser circulation ratio Corrosion Protection from corrosion Condensate Cycle Feed Water Cycle Main Steam Cycle Boiler Water Carryover Effects of Carryover Causes of Carryover INTRODUCTION of NPSH NPSH-PROBLEMS PUMP CAVITATION Steam Turbine Steam Turbine History Types of Steam Turbine
Speed Regulation Steam Turbine Classifications The Curtis Stage Types of blades and stage Basic Parts of Steam Turbine Parts and functions of steam turbine Principal of operation and Design Impulse turbines Reaction turbines Q and A Thermodynamic cycles and Types Methods to increase power Methods to improve efficiency Thermal power station Introductory overview Efficiency Cost of electricity Working principal of steam turbine The four processes in the Rankine cycle Principle of operation of steam turbine Advantages of steam turbine over steam engine Steam Turbine Governing Heating of Steam Turbine Steam Turbine Performance Steam Turbine Testing Steam Turbine Specifications Classification of Steam Turbine Turbine operation Shutting the turbine down Major components of a turbine Governing or regulating valves Control Monitoring & Operation Operator Responsibilities Prime movers governing systems The turbine supervisory system TSE Introduction to Protection Measurement Types Shaft Vibration (relative) Shaft Vibration (absolute) Bearing Vibration (also relates to prediction monitoring) Position Measurement Eccentricity
Phase (also relates to prediction monitoring) Differential Expansion Valve Position Speed Measurement (acceleration, direction, and more) Axial Position Protection Process Variables Steam turbines with modern control platforms Noise Criterion Proper Eccentricity probe location Advanced Turbine Monitoring System by ITS Turbine stress evaluator TSE How steam turbine protection system works Protection of Steam Turbine POWER BEARINGS Turning Gear Turbo Generator History Design Generator heat dissipation Generator high voltage system Excitation of Synchronous Machine Synchronous Alternator Construction Excitation System Types of Excitation System Q and A What are the types of generator Basic working principal of generator Generator Cooling System Advantages of A.C Generator Generator protections system Generator protections Zones Governor Droop system Droop speed control Q and A Diesel Generator Use Of Diesel Generator In Power Plants Diesel Power Plant
Synchronization Power Transformer Buchholz relay Differential relay Transformer Protection D.C Supply Direct current (DC) History Various definitions Applications Domestic and Commercial Direct current as source of operating power Types of batteries Equipment used in 220V DC supply system Use of battery if power station Purpose of DC system Cooling Towers Types of cooling Towers Temperature measurement in cooling tower Auxiliaries of cooling tower Traveling screens Pumps Vacuum gauges Switch Yard Bus Bar Disconnects Circuit breaker Current transformer Voltage transformer Earthing switch Surge arrestor Overhead ground wire Preventive maintenance Electrical Substation Components and working Relays Capacitor Banks Q and A GIS GRID Stations Advantages of GIS Synchronous Condenser Capacitor Banks
black start Definition PTW Fore Types of PTW TR ( trouble Reports) Demineralization ( DM ) Water Treatment Plants Balance of plant (BOP) Heating ventilation and air conditioning HVAC Predictive and Preventive Maintenance Thermo vision survey for switch yard Principles of thermal imaging Thermal Imaging Cameras Buhut Buhut Shukeriya(Thanks)
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
Health ,Safety and Fire in ENGINEERING (HSE)
FIRE Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products i.e. toxic gases and smoke. PRINCIPLE OF FIRE Fires start when a flammable or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas, is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron (three-dimensional case).
Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions 1. Oxygen 2. Fuel 3. Heat
When fire take place, below mentioned three objects can be observed easily. 1. Hot Gases (emission) 2. Light 3. Heat The emission gases have different properties regarding fuel. The visibility of flame light depends on the particles which have not been burned completely. Hence, they become visible. The different gases contain in atmosphere are listed below. S/No. Name of Gas Symbol % in air 1 Nitrogen N2 78% 2 Oxygen O2 21% 3 Carbon Dioxide CO2 1% The flash point of different fuels is listed below. S/No. Name of Gas Flash Point Auto ignition temperature 1 Gasoline (Petrol) -43 O C 280 O C 2 Furnace Oil (RFO) >60 O C 407 O C 3 Natural Gas >93.3 O C 580 O C 4 Kerosene Oil >37 to 65 O C 229 O C Flash Point The flash point indicates how easy a chemical may ignite and burn Auto Ignition Temperature The Auto-Ignition Temperature - or the minimum temperature required to ignite a gas or vapor in air without a spark or flame
FUEL Fuels are any materials that store potential energy in forms that can be practicably released and used for work or as heat energy. OR Those materials that are storing energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion. Types of Fuels 1. Solid -- Wood, Coal, Lignite, Peat etc. 2. Liquid -- Petroleum, Diesel, Fuel Oils, Alcohols etc. 3. Gaseous – Natural Gas, Coal Gas, Hydrogen etc.
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
Types of Fire S/No. Fire Class Symbol Properties 1 A Fires that involve flammable solids such as wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics 2 B Fires that involve flammable liquids or liquefiable solids such as petrol/gasoline, oil, paint, some waxes & plastics, but not cooking fats or oils 3 C Class C fires are fires involving energized electrical equipment such as motors, transformers, and appliances 4 D Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium 5 E Fires that involve flammable gases, such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane 6 F or K Fires involving cooking fats & oils. The high temp. of oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids making normal extinguishing agents ineffective.
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
Types of Fire and extinguishing Fuel Source Class of Fire Type of Extinguisher (Extinguishing Agent) Ordinary combustibles (e.g. trash, wood, paper, cloth) A Water; chemical foam Flammable liquids (e.g. oils, grease, tar, gasoline, paints, thinners) B Carbon dioxide (CO2); dry chemical; film forming foam Electricity (e.g. live electrical equipment) C CO2; dry chemical Combustible metals (e.g. magnesium, titanium) D Dry powder (suitable for the specific combustible metal involved) Combustible gases (e.g. Natural Gas, Butane) E A.B.C powder Combustible Cooking (e.g. cooking oils; animal fats, vegetable fats) F or K Wet chemical (Potassium acetate based) Fire Class Extinguisher Type A Soda Acid A Water Type BCDE Carbon Dioxide AB Foam Type ABCD Chemical Powder, Dry Type ABCE B.C.F Halon BE Carbon Tetrachloride
Portable and semi portable fire extinguishers. HOW TO OPERATE FIRE EXTINGUISHNER Check either extinguisher is fully charged or not
Ensure you remain a safe distance from the fire and remove the safety pin Where to aim the fire extinguisher hose: Fires spreading horizontally: Aim the hose at the base of the fire, moving the jet across the area of the fire Fire spreading vertically: Aim the hose at the base of the fire, slowly moving the jet upwards following the direction of the fire Squeeze the lever slowly to begin discharging the extinguisher, as the fire starts to diminish carefully move closer to it. Ensure all the fire has been extinguished; try to focus on any hot spots that may re- ignite.
Non-portable Fire Extinguishing Systems Mulsi Fire System Used to extinguishing the fire occurred at electrical transformer The MulsiFire system applies water in the form of a conical spray consisting of droplets of water travelling at high velocity. These droplets bombard oil surface to form a mixture of oil & water. This mixture significantly cools fire reducing the rate of liquid vaporization, While water droplets are passing through flame zone, some of the water is formed into steam that dilutes the air feeding the fire and creates a smothering effect to extinguish the fire. Sprinkler System Used to extinguishing the fire occurred in cable trenches A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting of water supply system, providing adequate pressure & flow rate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected
Auto Carbon Dioxide Used to extinguishing the fire occurred on Turbine & Generator.
The non-portable fire extinguishing systems are often used at large power plants. WHENEVER FIRE OCCURRED When you find fire, inform the concern. Restrict the fire by using extinguishing. Activate the fire alarm. Leave your self and exit Enter low into fire zone. Remove endanger person Take control Fundamentals for extinguishing fire The below mentioned are basic fundamental rules to extinguishing fire 1. Starvation 2. Smothering 3. Cooling Starvation Removing fuel from fire triangle is called elimination of fire starvation. Smothering Removing oxygen from fire triange is called smothering Cooling To decrease the temperature of fuel from ignition point is called cooling
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES 1. To store carefully hazardous fuels i.e. petrol, oil, thinner etc. 2. To stop leakage in oil lube, hydrogen, natural gas lines etc. 3. To observe the increase in bearing temperature of I.D and F.D fans. 4. Always observe the oil leakage where steam and oil lines in vicinity. 5. Cotton rags should be kept in safe place. 6. Whenever oil is used in plant or workshop the excessive quantity should be returned back to store. 7. Where smoking is not allowed, make sure that the rule is followed. 8. Always make close watch over electric supply cables and wires.
DIFFERENT SAFETY SIGNS
THE MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK REGULATIONS Employers must: Assess risks to the health and safety of their employees and non-employees arising in, or from, the workshop, and review them when there is significant change. Records of significant findings of the assessment must be kept where there are five or more employees plan, organize, control, monitor and review the preventative and protective measures taken as a result of the assessment provide health surveillance where necessary, for example to help control health risks from metalworking fluids appoint any competent person needed to help them comply with legal obligations, for example, when having lifting equipment thoroughly examined set out what should be done in case of serious and imminent danger in the workshop, such as the spillage of a large amount of degreasing solvent tell employees about the risks and precautions involved in their work train employees to work safely. SAFETY & HEALTH GOALS The following goals have been established for XYZ Manufacturing Company: (1) Provide workers with a safe work environment. (2) Conduct routine/regular workplace inspections. (3) Provide Personal Protective Equipment. (4) Develop and implement safe work procedures and rules. (5) Provide on-going safety training (6) Enforce safety rules and appropriate discipline. (7) Provide on-going property conservation practices.
NEW EMPLOYEE ORIENTATION The following topics will be covered in the Safety Orientation Session: 1. Company History 2. Safety Program/Policy & Work rules 3. Responsibilities 4.Safety Education/Training 5. Safety Audit/Inspections 6. Accident Reporting/Investigation Requirements 7. First Aid & Blood borne Pathogens 8. Personal Protective Equipment 9. Tool & Equipment Use 10. Material Handling 11. Lockout-Tag out 12. Machine Guarding 13. MVR Requirements 14. Hazard Communication 15. Emergency Action 16. Return-to-work & Light Duty Assignments All new hires will be provided an opportunity to ask any question that pertains to their job duties and employment at XYZ Manufacturing Company SAFETY & TRAINING All in-house Safety & Training sessions will be coordinated by (Name of Safety Director). Foremen and Assistant Foremen are required to be trained in Accident Investigation Procedures by the Safety Director. Operators of forklift trucks are to be trained in-house in accordance with federal/state requirements. Operators must attend classroom instruction as well as ―behind the wheel training‖. All employees who work with, or are exposed to, hazardous chemicals are to be trained in Hazard Communication, in accordance with federal and state regulations. All employees who don respirators are to be trained in accordance with federal and state regulations. Those individuals who don respirators are required to have annual physicals. Machine operators and maintenance personnel are to be trained in Lockout/Tagout procedures. Individual locks/keys will be assigned to those individuals participating in the LOTO program. All employees who don Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) will be trained in the proper use of such equipment. First-aid training and Bloodborne Pathogen (BBP) training will be conducted by (Name of Hospital) and the local chapter of the American Red Cross. Machine/Equipment
operators are to be trained in-house. Emphasis is to be placed on point of operation guarding. No employee is allowed to operate a machine unless it is properly guarded. Employees who operate company vehicles are required to participate in an in-house Defensive Driving Program. Foremen and Assistant Foremen are to meet with the Safety Director on a quarterly basis to discuss training needs and goals. SAFETY RULES All safety rules must be obeyed. Failure to do so will result in strict disciplinary action. 1. All injuries must be reported as soon as possible. 2. No horseplay, alcohol, or drugs allowed on premises. 3. No alcohol usage allowed during lunch break. 4. PPE must be worn as prescribed by management. 5. All tools/equipment must be maintained in good condition. 6. Only appropriate tools shall be used for specific jobs. 7. All guards must be kept in place. 8. No spliced electrical cords/wiring allowed. 9. Only authorized personnel can operate forklift vehicles. 10. Smoking allowed only in lunchroom. 11. Seat belt use required of all drivers/passengers.
SAFETY COMMITTEE General functions of the Safety Committee can include: 1. Identifying workplace hazards 2.Enforcement of Safety Rules 3. Measuring safety performance 4. Reducing frequency/severity of injuries 5. Creating safety policies 6. Developing and monitoring safety programs Specific tasks of the Safety Committee can include: 1. Conducting self-inspections of the workplace 2. Review employee reports of hazards 3. Assist in safety training 4. Creating safety incentive programs 5. Publish/distribute safety newsletter 6. Inspect PPE 7. Post safety posters/slogans on bulletin board 8. Identify Light Duty Jobs SAFETY: Safety is the state of being ―safe‖. The condition of being protected against physical, social, financial, political or other types damages, harm accidents or any other event which would be considered non-desirable. Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. It includes protection of people of possession.
Regulation of Safety Code It power plant and other industrial workers should use safety codes and follow safety precautions during work hrs, so that no harm or fatal accident does not take place DUTIES OF WORKERS All employees should follow safety rules and always try best to avoid redundant situation regarding his own and other co-workers. SAFETY CODE The safety code contains all information and guideline to restrain from accidents during job and further if any accident take place then how the aftereffect can be minimized. Thus, safety code is used to minimize the risk of accident for example: safety tags etc. SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS There are two major rules of safety Good House Keeping Good Operation Good housekeeping
Your work location should be kept clean and orderly. Keep machines and other objects (merchandise, boxes, shopping carts, etc.) out of the center of aisles. Clean up spills, drips, and leaks immediately to avoid slips and falls. Place trash in the proper receptacles. Stock shelves carefully so merchandise will not fall over upon contact. GOOD OPERATION Good operation means to take necessary measures to safe operation of all appliances at industry i.e. If you have to work on breaker then it should be isolated, check its isolation and connect a earth lead. The worker should take serious efforts on the following. Missing Warning Sign. Without warning sign any work on equipment can be very dangerous and severe damage to life and equipment can take place. Improper Guarding During work all safety gears should be wear i.e. gloves, safety shoes, safety goggles etc.
Defective Material Before starting work proper tools and safety gears should be used to avoid any accident. It should be ensured that tools are made in accordance with international laws and they have not been broken nor have bad workmanship quality.
Causes of accidents Hazards Everything which came under hazards is dangerous. i.e. oil leakage, cotton rags, and bad sanitation.
Insufficient lighting At work place insufficient lighting is can be a part during accident. Thus, sufficient lighting at work place should be ensured. Air Ventilation At work place harmful gases should not be gathered i.e. acid vapors and dust. Thus, proper ventilation of air should be ensured. Loose Cloths Loose cloths should not be wearing at work place. SAFETY GEARS Safety gears are used as prime substance to ensure safety to worker. Thus, before working on electrical system this should be checked and ensure according to rules and regulation of department. Kinds of safety gears Safety Helmet It protect worker from head and eye injury, further it protects from heat stroke and dust. Thus, this should be wear during work hrs. Safety equipment Ear Muffs This protect human ear from excessive noise a work place which can damage hearing efficiency. Normal noise level is 85~90db. Thus if the noise exceed from above the ear muffs should be used.
Safety shoes. At industrial area the safety shoes are used to restrain hazards at wet, oils places or any place where foot injury is one of most prime cause. These shoes can be used at chemical plant, However they are called long rubber shoes. They also insulate human body from electrical shock. Protective Cloth Use appropriate protective cloth during decanting of furnace oil, acid tankers and batteries. Respirator mask This should be wear, where industrial exhaust i.e. stacks or where any other dangerous gases contacting human body. If respirators are not used that this will bring deceases like i.e. chest infection and allergies during respiration. Safety glasses The wearing of safety glasses by all shop employees and work on sand blasting etc. Strict adherence to this policy can significantly reduce the risk of eye injuries. Safety gloves.
Through this apparatus worker can be safe during work on acid, handing furnace oil, steam and hot valves or electrical contacts. Safety belts. This safes the worker from fall down from height. Thus during work on electrical pole or any place alike that, safety belt must be used. Safety shoes Welder protective shield. During welder a vital sparking light may cause an injury to eye. Thus, to restrain such type of injury protection shield must be wear before welding.
Safety programs The below are prime objects to conduct safety programs. 1. To point out unsafe practice, so that employees and appliances are prevented from accident. 2. To empower the administrative to follow ensure the regulation of safety code. 3. To abide the SOP for safety code. 4. To prepare a comprehensive accident reports this contains causes of accident and prevention, so that other may follow to restrain such accidents. 5. Work plan may be made in accordance with safety rules. 6. To conduct safety seminars in-between other power plants, so that awareness to new technology may be discussed and this will bring knowledge for safe operations. Safety is of the utmost importance while operating the main engine. Failure to observe safety precautions can result in damage to the main engine, personnel injuries, or even death. Even though many safety precautions seem to be common sense, many times personnel fail to consider the results of their actions. Never place any part of the body near rotating machinery. While it is highly unlikely anyone will ever attempt to grab the main shaft while it is rotating at 200 rpm, there are other things to be considered. While the main engine jacking gear is engaged, the shaft is rotating at a very slow rate. Despite this slow rotation, watch standers still should not be permitted to do any type of work to the main shaft, such as painting or cleaning the main shaft. Do not wear jewelry, neckties, or loose fitting clothing while operating equipment. This clothing can become entangled in the machinery and cause injury or death. Oil leaks shall be corrected at their source. Spills of any kind shall be wiped up immediately and the wiping rags disposed of immediately or stored in fire safe containers. Failure to observe safety with any petroleum product can result in a major Class B fire. Promptly reinstall shaft guards, coupling guards, deck plates, handrails, flange shields and other protective devices removed as interferences immediately after completion of maintenance on machinery, piping, valves or other system components. An open main engine presents special safety precautions. While the main engine is open, an E-5 or above is required to stand guard. A security area is established around
the main engine using ropes and signs. No tools are permitted within the security area without first being inventoried by the guard. Before personnel are permitted to enter the security area, they are required to remove all jewelry, securely fasten eyeglasses and tools to their body using lanyards, and all clothing fasteners must be covered with tape. As an added safety precaution, ensure all warfare and rank devices are removed before entering the security area. This precaution prevents inadvertent introduction of anything that could cause damage to the turbines. ACCIDENTS AND ILL HEALTH There are many thousands of accidents and In any particular Plant risks which cases of ill health reported every year in are relevant should be assessed. Those small engineering workshops. Almost two- likely to be of most concern include: thirds of all such accidents reported to HSE V movement of people, goods and arise from the movement of people, goods vehicles around the Plant, and vehicles into, around and out of particularly manual handling workshops. Of these `movement' accidents
- About half involve lifting and moving metalworking fluids, degreasing solvents, goods, and - About half involve slips, trips and falls and hitting stationary or moving plant and equipment - 'Non-movement' accidents usually arise and varied sector is available from a from the use of machinery; these account number of sources, including published for between 10 and 15% of all accidents. - Electrical accidents are not uncommon and union publications, although it is difficult frequently have the potential for more to see the whole picture. The interpret-serious injuries than those recorded. - The most common occupational diseases are in dealing with the sector. white finger, and back, hand, arm, shoulder and neck problems. .- In any particular workshop risks which cases of ill health reported every year in are relevant should be assessed. Those small engineering workshops. Almost two- likely to be of most concern include: - Movement of people, goods and arise from the movement of people, goods vehicles around the Plant, and vehicles into, around and out of particularly manual handling - Machinery safeguarding - Hazardous substances, particularly metalworking fluids, degreasing solvents, goods, and and dust or fume from welding, brazing, soldering,coating and painting noise, and vibration.
WHAT FIRST AID IS NEEDED IN WORKPLACES? First aid is the immediate and basic care given to an injured or sick person before a doctor, other health professional or emergency services take over their treatment. It focuses on preserving life and minimizing serious injury by maintaining breathing and circulation, stemming blood, immobilizing broken bones etc. First aid requirements at work fall into three categories: - suitably stocked first aid kits and facilities - where needed, an appropriate number of suitably trained first aiders - information for employees about first aid arrangements. This guide includes some suggestions to help you organise your first aid kits, facilities, first aiders and information to employees. Some workplaces have greater risks of injury and illness because of the sort of work they do. These risks are an important factor in deciding first aid requirements, because different first aid facilities may be needed for different activities. Employers are required to provide first aid that takes into account the individual circumstances of their workplace. Circumstances that can affect your first aid needs include things like hazards common in your industry or workplace, the number of employees you have, and how far away you are from medical help. One way to identify the first aid needs of your business is to complete a Workplace First Aid Needs Assessment. The section below can help you do that.
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
DEFINITIONS OF FRIST AID 1.1 First-aid in the workplace includes the provision of first-aid facilities, services and personnel required for the initial treatment of persons suffering from injury or illness at a workplace. It is the immediate treatment or care given to a victim of an accident or sudden illness before qualified health personnel attend to provide treatment. The aims of first aid are to: • Preserve life; • Prevent illness or injury from becoming worse; • Reduce pain; • Promote recovery; and • Care of unconscious. 1.2 First-aid facilities includes • first-aid box; • first-aid room; and • first-aid equipment, e.g. oxygen tanks and stretchers. 1.3 First-aid requirement means the requirements for first aid facilities, services and personnel at a workplace; 1.4 First-aid services means any procedure or method associated with the provision of first-aid at the workplace; 1.5 First-aider means a person who has successfully completed a first-aid course and has been awarded with a certificate of proficiency in first-aid by an institution listed in Appendix 1. 1.6 Risk means the likelihood that a hazard will cause harm. 1.7 Universal Precautions means a set of precautions designed to prevent transmission of blood-borne pathogens when providing first aid or health care.
An Employer shall, from time to time, recruit or select suitable persons to go for first-aid training. The employer should consider persons with the following qualities to be trained in first-aid: • physically fit • free from blood borne infectious diseases, e.g. Hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS • free to leave their work immediately to respond to an emergency Recommended Contents of a First-Aid Box 1. Triangular bandages 130cm x 90cm x 90cm 2. Sterile eye pads 3. Non-sterile 4x4‖ gauze pads 4. Sterile 4x4‖ gauze pads 5. Sterile 10x10‖ gauze pads 6. Elastic bandage 7. 4 Roller bandages 7.5 cm 8. 4 Roller bandages 3 cm. 9. 4 Roller bandages 2.5 cm 10. Cold pack compress gel 11. Burn sheet/dressing 12. Pairs of gloves (disposable/ non sterile) 13. Stainless steel bandage scissors 14. Adhesive tape 15. Sterile multi-trauma dressing/gauze 16. Alcohol prep pads 17. Cetavlon 18. Cotton buds 19. Barrier device for CPR (pocket mask, face shield) 20. Elastoplasts/sterile adhesive dressing 21. Safety pin for triangular bandages 22. Thermometer 23. First aid manual 24. Waterproof waste bag
INTRODUCTION TO POWER PLANTS (A power plant known as energy conversion station ) A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e., power with economy and requirements. The power plant itself must be useful economically and environmental friendly to the society. generation. While the stress is on energy efficient system regards conventional power systems viz., to increase the system conversion efficiency the supreme goal is to develop, design, and manufacturer the non-conventional power generating systems in coming decades preferably after 2050 AD which are conducive to society as well as having feasible energy conversion efficiency and non-friendly to pollution, keeping in view the pollution act. The subject as a whole can be also stated as modern power plants for power electricity generation in 21st century. The word modern means pertaining to time. At present due to energy crisis the first goal is to conserve energy for future A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the generator, the electricity is generated. The type of prime move determines, the type of power plants. The major power plants, which are discussed in this book, are, Different prime movers installed for power plants
Basic concept of modern power plants The modern power complex consists on Steam and Gas Turbine has three major concepts. S/No. Name and History Concept 1 Willian Rankine‘s (1845~1865) Thermodynamics Where heat is added in water boiler to convert heat into work 2 George Brayton (1872) Thermodynamics Where heat is added and discharged at constant pressure 3 Michael Faraday (1831) discovery of induction in 1831 When a permanent magnet is moved relative to a conductor, or vice versa, an electromotive force is created. If the wire is connected through an electrical load, current will flow, and thus electrical energy is generated Faraday's iron ring apparatus. Change in the magnetic flux of the left coil induces a current in the right coil. Entropy of Rankine Cycle Where heat is added in water boiler to convert heat into work
Entropy of Braytone Cycle Where heat is added and discharged at constant pressure Types of Power Plants 1. Conventional Power Plants. Those power plants, which can be installed at any where easily i.e. Thermal Power Plants. 2. Non-conventional Power Plants. Those Power Plants, which cannot be installed at any where easily i.e. Wind Electric Power. Those power plants, which produce electricity by converting chemical into electric energy called thermal power plant.
Different categories of power plants
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
Combined cycle power plant
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
Combined Cycle Plant for Power Generation: Introduction The process for converting the energy in a fuel into electric power involves the creation of mechanical work, which is then transformed into electric power by a generator, causing efficiency losses in the process. Depending on the fuel type and thermodynamic process, the overall efficiency of this conversion is typically around 30 – 40%. This means that a significant amount of the latent energy of the fuel ends up wasted. Much of this wasted energy ends up as thermal energy in the hot exhaust gases from the combustion process. To increase the overall efficiency of electric power plants, multiple processes can be combined to recover and utilize the residual heat energy in hot exhaust gases. In combined cycle mode, power plants can achieve electrical efficiencies of up to 60 percent. The term ―combined cycle‖ refers to the combining of multiple thermodynamic cycles to generate power. Combined cycle operation employs a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that captures heat from high temperature exhaust gases to produce steam, which is then supplied to a steam turbine to generate additional electric power. The process for creating steam to produce work using a steam turbine is based on the Rankine cycle. The most common type of combined cycle power plant utilizes gas turbines and is called a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. Because gas turbines have low efficiency in simple cycle operation, the output produced by the steam turbine accounts for about half of the CCGT plant output. There are many different configurations for CCGT power plants, but typically each GT has its own associated HRSG, and multiple HRSGs supply steam to one or more steam turbines. For example, at a plant in a 2x1 configuration, two GT/HRSG trains supply to one steam turbine; likewise there can be 1x1, 3x1 or 4x1 arrangements. The steam turbine is sized to the number and capacity of supplying GTs/HRSGs.
Combined Cycle Principles of Operation The HRSG is basically a heat exchanger, or rather a series of heat exchangers. It is also called a boiler, as it creates steam for the steam turbine by passing the hot exhaust gas flow from a gas turbine or combustion engine through banks of heat exchanger tubes. The HRSG can rely on natural circulation or utilize forced circulation using pumps. As the hot exhaust gases flow past the heat exchanger tubes in which hot water circulates, heat is absorbed causing the creation of steam in the tubes. The tubes are arranged in sections, or modules, each serving a different function in the production of dry superheated steam. These modules are referred to as economizers, evaporators, super heaters /re heaters and pre heaters. The economizer is a heat exchanger that preheats the water to approach the saturation temperature (boiling point), which is supplied to a thick-walled steam drum. The drum is located adjacent to finned evaporator tubes that circulate heated water. As the hot exhaust gases flow past the evaporator tubes, heat is absorbed causing the creation of steam in the tubes. The steam-water mixture in the tubes enters the steam drum where steam is separated from the hot water using moisture separators and cyclones. The separated water is re circulated to the evaporator tubes. Steam drums also serve storage and water treatment functions. An alternative design to steam drums is a once- through HRSG, which replaces the steam drum with thin-walled components that are better suited to handle changes in exhaust gas temperatures and steam pressures during frequent starts and stops. In some designs, duct burners are used to add heat to the exhaust gas stream and boost steam production; they can be used to produce steam even if there is insufficient exhaust gas flow. Saturated steam from the steam drums or once-through system is sent to the super heater to produce dry steam which is required for the steam turbine. Pre heaters are located at the coolest end of the HRSG gas path and absorb energy to preheat heat exchanger liquids, such as water/glycol mixtures, thus extracting the most economically viable amount of heat from exhaust gases. The superheated steam produced by the HRSG is supply to the steam turbine where it expands through the turbine blades, imparting rotation to the turbine shaft. The energy delivered to the generator drive shaft is converted into electricity. After exiting the steam turbine, the steam is sent to a condenser which routes the condensed water back to the HRSG.
CCGT Design Considerations Designs and configurations for HRSGs and steam turbines depend on the exhaust gas characteristics, steam requirements, and expected power plant operations. Because the exhaust gases from a gas turbine can reach 600ºC, HRSGs for GTs may produce steam at multiple pressure levels to optimize energy recovery; thus they often have three sets of heat exchanger modules – one for high pressure (HP) steam, one for intermediate pressure (IP) steam, and one for low pressure (LP) steam. The high pressure steam in a large CCGT plant can reach 40 – 110 bar. With a multiple-pressure HRSG, the steam turbine will typically have multiple steam admission points. In a three- stage steam turbine, HP, IP and LP steam produced by the HRSG is fed into the turbine at different points. The HRSGs present operational constraints on the CCGT power plant. As the HRSGs are located directly downstream of the gas turbines, changes in temperature and pressure of the exhaust gases cause thermal and mechanical stress. When CCGT power plants are used for load-following operation, characterized by frequent starts and stops or operating at part-load to meet fluctuating electric demand, this cycling can cause thermal stress and eventual damage in some components of the HRSG. The HP steam drum and super heater headers are more prone to reduced mechanical life because they are subjected to the highest exhaust gas temperatures. Important design and operating considerations are the gas and steam temperatures that the module materials can withstand; mechanical stability for turbulent exhaust flow; corrosion of HRSG tubes; and steam pressures that may necessitate thicker-walled drums. To control the rate of pressure and temperature increase in HRSG components, bypass systems can be used to divert some of the GT exhaust gases from entering the HRSG during startup. The HRSG takes longer to warm up from cold conditions than from hot conditions. As a result, the amount of time elapsed since last shutdown influences startup time. When
gas turbines are ramped to load quickly, the temperature and flow in the HRSG may not yet have achieved conditions to produce steam, which causes metal overheating since there is no cooling steam flow. In 1x1 configurations, the operation of the steam turbine is directly coupled to the GT/HRSG operation, limiting the rate at which the power plant can be ramped to load. Steam conditions acceptable for the steam turbine are dictated by thermal limits of the rotor, blade, and casing design. Control equipment for nitrogen oxides (N Ox) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are integrated into the HRSG. As these systems operate efficiently over a narrow range of gas temperatures, they are often installed between evaporator modules. Flexible Combined Cycle: The Flexi cycle Power Plant The Flexi cycle power plant is a combined cycle power plant with unique characteristics based on Wärtsilä gas or dual-fuel combustion engines. Because combustion engines convert more of the fuel energy into mechanical work, they have higher simple cycle efficiencies, averaging near 50 percent. The exhaust gases from reciprocating internal combustion engines are around 360ºC, much lower temperature than GT exhaust. Due to the lower exhaust gas temperatures, HRSGs designed for combustion engine power plants are much simpler in design, creating steam at one pressure level – approximately 15 bar. The steam turbine process adds approximately 10-20% to the efficiency of the Flexi cycle power plant. In a Flexi cycle power plant, each combustion engine generator set has an associated HRSG. Bypass valves are used to control the admission of steam to the steam turbine when an engine set is not operating. One engine can be used to preheat all the HRSG exhaust gas boilers with steam to keep the HRSGs hot and enable fast starting. Flexi cycle power plants combine the advantages of high efficiency in simple cycle and the modularity of multiple engines supplying the steam turbine. The steam turbine can be run with only 25 percent of the engines at full load, or 50 percent of the engines at half
load. For a 12-engine power plant of around 200 megawatts (MW), this means only three of the engines need to be operating to produce enough steam to run the steam turbine. The result is a very efficient power plant that retains the operational agility of a power plant based on simple-cycle engines. Supplementary firing and blade cooling The HRSG can be designed with supplementary firing of fuel after the gas turbine in order to increase the quantity or temperature of the steam generated. Without supplementary firing, the efficiency of the combined cycle power plant is higher, but supplementary firing lets the plant respond to fluctuations of electrical load. Supplementary burners are also called duct burners. More fuel is sometimes added to the turbine's exhaust. This is possible because the turbine exhaust gas (flue gas) still contains some oxygen. Temperature limits at the gas turbine inlet force the turbine to use excess air, above the optimal stoichiometric ratio to
burn the fuel. Often in gas turbine designs part of the compressed air flow bypasses the burner and is used to cool the turbine blades. combined cycle power plants Fuel for Combined cycle plants are usually powered by natural gas, although fuel oil, synthesis gas or other fuels can be used. The supplementary fuel may be natural gas, fuel oil, or coal. Bio fuels can also be used. Integrated solar combined cycle power stations combine the energy harvested from solar radiation with another fuel to cut fuel costs and environmental impact. The first such system to come online is Yazd power plant, Iran[3][4] and more are under construction at Hassi R'mel, Algeria and Ain Beni Mathar, Morocco [5]. Next generation nuclear power plants are also on the drawing board which will take advantage of the higher temperature range made available by the Brayton top cycle, as well as the increase in thermal efficiency offered by a Rankine bottoming cycle. Advantages Combined cycle power plants and cogeneration power plants that use the gas turbine engine as their primary driver have been popular for a number of years for a number of reasons. Efficiencies of over 60% based on lower heating of the fuel have been achieved by these facilities. Other fossil fuel power plants, such as plants with conventional boilers, have efficiency in the range 40–42% for supercritical technology and 45–47% for ultra supercritical technology based on lower heating value of the fuel. Gaseous emissions from gas turbine–based power plants are very low. Oxidizing catalysts can be used to convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, and NOx reduction catalysts that utilize ammonia can be used to convert oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen and
water vapor and reduce these two types of emissions to 2 ppm. Due to their high efficiency and the fact that they usually burn natural gas fuel, gas turbine–based power plants also emit far less carbon dioxide than other types of fossil fuel power plants. Capital cost is lower than other power plants. Reasonably priced natural gas (primarily due to the development of shale gas) is available at least in the US market. They have a small footprint and do not require much space when compared to other modes of power generation. A small operating and maintenance staff is all that is required. It is relatively easy to permit them. Construction time is short compared to other types of power plants. Lastly, due to its ability to start up quickly and respond to demand changes rapidly, the combined cycle power plant has become the ideal companion for renewable power generation sources such as wind energy and solar energy, whose output is variable. Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) An integrated gasification combined cycle, or IGCC, is a power plant using synthetic gas (syngas). Automotive use Combined cycles have traditionally only been used in large power plants. BMW, however, has proposed that automobiles use exhaust heat to drive steam turbines.[7] This can even be connected to the car or truck's cooling system to save space and weight, but also to provide a condenser in the same location as the radiator and preheating of the water using heat from the engine block. However, sterling engines can also be used if light weight is a priority (such as in a sports car or racing application), because they use air rather than water as the working fluid.
It may be possible to use the pistons in a reciprocating engine for both combustion and steam expansion like in the Crower six stroke.[8] Aero motive use Some versions of the Wright R-3350 were produced as turbo-compound engines. Three turbines driven by exhaust gases, known as power recovery turbines, provided nearly 600 hp at takeoff. These turbines added power to the engine crankshaft through bevel gears and fluid couplings. more than one thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are only able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually less than 50%). ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined cycle power plant cycle burns a fuel inside a gas turbine, and the gas turbine drives an electric generator. Abstract: This chapter deals with the theory behind power plants with particular reference to cogeneration and combined cycle power plants (CCPPs). The two key cycles are the Brayton (gas turbine) and Rankine (steam turbine) cycles, within each of which there are further subdivisions. A combination of the Brayton and Rankine cycles, often known as the combined cycle, has been found to obtain efficiencies as high as 60% and consequently is now used extensively worldwide as the main source of power. It is also more commonly being used in combined heat and power (CHP) plants that provide power and other sources of energy such as heat and air conditioning for major complexes or parts of cities. The chapter also deals with availability and reliability of major power plants and with power plant emissions and techniques to contain the emissions from these plants. Gas steam combined cycle power plants have been playing an important role in peak shaving of a power grid. The increasingly complexity of power demand and power supply structure puts forward higher requirements for flexible operation, which is characterized by frequent load changes and start-stop operation. Under such circumstances, obtaining an optimal operation strategy becomes essential for profitability of combine cycle power plants. In this paper, a thermodynamic model comprising key functional modules of a combined cycle power plant and its overall cycle process are presented. An economic analysis method based on heat consumption rate is proposed. The proposed model is applied in a combined cycle power plant in China, and quantitative impacts of flexible operation on maintenance cost are discussed. Results show that the model can reflect the thermal economy of the power plant under variable environmental conditions. The economic analysis shows that there are significant economic differences between different flexible operation cases
GAS TURBINE Gas Turbine for Power Generation: Introduction The use of gas turbines for generating electricity Today, gas turbines are one of the most widely-used power generating technologies. Gas turbines are a type of internal combustion (IC) engine in which burning of an air-fuel mixture produces hot gases that spin a turbine to produce power. It is the production of hot gas during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name. Gas turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels. Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in which combustion occurs intermittently. How Do Gas Turbines Work Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same shaft: the compressor, the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the turbine. The compressor can be either axial flow or centrifugal flow. Axial flow compressors are more common in power generation because they have higher flow rates and efficiencies. Axial flow compressors are comprised of multiple stages of rotating and stationary blades (or stators) through which air is drawn in parallel to the axis of rotation and incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The acceleration of the air through the rotating blades and diffusion by the stators increases the pressure and reduces the volume of the air. Although no heat is added, the compression of the air also causes the temperature to increase.
The compressed air is mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The fuel and compressed air can be pre-mixed or the compressed air can be introduced directly into the combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under constant pressure conditions and the hot combustion products (gases) are directed through the turbine where it expands rapidly and imparts rotation to the shaft. The turbine is also comprised of stages, each with a row of stationary blades (or nozzles) to direct the expanding gases followed by a row of moving blades. The rotation of the shaft drives the compressor to draw in and compress more air to sustain continuous combustion. The remaining shaft power is used to drive a generator which produces electricity. Approximately 55 to 65 percent of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. To optimize the transfer of kinetic energy from the combustion gases to shaft rotation, gas turbines can have multiple compressor and turbine stages. Because the compressor must reach a certain speed before the combustion process is continuous – or self-sustaining – initial momentum is imparted to the turbine rotor from
an external motor, static frequency converter, or the generator itself. The compressor must be smoothly accelerated and reach firing speed before fuel can be introduced and ignition can occur. Turbine speeds vary widely by manufacturer and design, ranging from 2,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) to 10,000 rpm. Initial ignition occurs from one or more spark plugs (depending on combustor design). Once the turbine reaches self- sustaining speed – above 50% of full speed – the power output is enough to drive the compressor, combustion is continuous, and the starter system can be disengaged. Parts of Gas Turbine 1. Filter House 2. Axial Flow Compressor 3. Combustion Chamber 4. Gas Turbine Filter House It consists of 1200 approx. air inlet filter which cleans atmospheric air for compressor. These filters are cartridge type and their use full life is around 2 years further due to these air inlet filer hard particulars cannot penetrate into compressor. Axial Flow Compressor This compressor intake air through air inlet filters and sent into combustion chamber. The air is pases through different stages and attains pressure & temperature. On every stage the temp and pressure arises with a certain ratio. Compressor has 16 stages and its comparison ratio is 1-10 bar. Thus if the inlet pressure is 1 bar then compressor outlet pressure will be 10bar and temperature arises upto 355 0 C. This mean at every
stage temperature raises upto 22 0 C and in final this compressed and temperature air enter into combustion chamber Combustion Chamber Combustion chamber is that part of turbine where energy converts from chemical energy to heat energy. Some gas turbines have 14 combustors and hot gases are passes through each combustor and enter into turbine. Some gas turbines have 02 combustion chambers and contain 8 burners. Gas Turbine Performance The thermodynamic process used in gas turbines is the Braton cycle. Two significant performance parameters are the pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The fuel-to- power efficiency of the engine is optimized by increasing the difference (or ratio) between the compressor discharge pressure and inlet air pressure. This compression
ratio is dependent on the design. Gas turbines for power generation can be either industrial (heavy frame) or aero derivative designs. Industrial gas turbines are designed for stationary applications and have lower pressure ratios – typically up to 18:1. Aero derivative gas turbines are lighter weight compact engines adapted from aircraft jet engine design which operate at higher compression ratios – up to 30:1. They offer higher fuel efficiency and lower emissions, but are smaller and have higher initial (capital) costs. Aero derivative gas turbines are more sensitive to the compressor inlet temperature. The temperature at which the turbine operates (firing temperature) also impacts efficiency, with higher temperatures leading to higher efficiency. However, turbine inlet temperature is limited by the thermal conditions that can be tolerated by the turbine blade metal alloy. Gas temperatures at the turbine inlet can be 1200ºC to 1400ºC, but some manufacturers have boosted inlet temperatures as high as 1600ºC by engineering blade coatings and cooling systems to protect metallurgical components from thermal damage. Because of the power required to drive the compressor, energy conversion efficiency for a simple cycle gas turbine power plant is typically about 30 percent, with even the most efficient designs around 40 percent. A large amount of heat remains in the exhaust gas, which is around 600ºC as it leaves the turbine. By recovering that waste heat to produce more useful work in a combined cycle configuration, gas turbine power plant efficiency can reach 55 to 60 percent. However, there are operational limitations associated with operating gas turbines in combined cycle mode, including longer startup time, purge requirements to prevent fires or explosions, and ramp rate to full load. Typical performance values for new gas turbines Gas turbine type Power output (MW el) Efficiency, Simple cycle (%), LHV Efficiency, Combined cycle (%), LHV Aeroderivative 30-60 39-43 51-54 Small scale heavy duty 70-200 35-37 53-55 Large scale heavy duty 200-500 37-40 54-60
Gas Turbine Theory A simple gas turbine is comprised of three main sections a compressor, a combustor, and a power turbine. The gas-turbine operates on the principle of the Brayton cycle, where compressed air is mixed with fuel, and burned under constant pressure conditions. The resulting hot gas is allowed to expand through a turbine to perform work. In a 33% efficient gas-turbine approximately two / thirds of this work is spent compressing the air, the rest is available for other work ie.( mechanical drive, electrical generation) One variation of this basic cycle is the addition of a regenerator. A gas-turbine with a regenerator (heat exchanger) recaptures some of the energy in the exhaust gas, pre- heating the air entering the combustor. This cycle is typically used on low pressure ratio turbines. Gas-turbines with high pressure ratios can use an intercooler to cool the air between stages of compression, allowing you to burn more fuel and generate more power. Remember, the limiting factor on fuel input is the temperature of the hot gas created, because of the metallurgy of the first stage nozzle and turbine blades. With the advances in materials technology this physical limit is always climbing. GAS-TURBINE HISTORY The history of the gas turbine begins with a quest for jet propulsion. Gas Turbine Theory
The earliest example of jet propulsion can be traced as far back as 150 BC to an Egyptian named Hero. Hero invented a toy that rotated on top of a boiling pot due to the reaction effect of hot air or steam exiting several nozzles arranged radially around a wheel. He called this invention an aeolipile. In 1232 the Chinese used rockets to frighten enemy soldiers. Around 1500 A.D. Leonardo da Vinci drew a sketch of a device that rotated due to the effect of hot gasses flowing up a chimney. The device was intended to be used to rotate meat being roasted. In 1629 another Italian named Giovanni Branca actually developed a device that used jets of steam to rotate a turbine that in turn was used to operate machinery. This was the first practical application of a steam turbine. Ferdinand Verbiest a Jesuit in China built a model carriage that used a steam jet for power in 1678.
The first patent for a turbine engine was granted in 1791 to an Englishman named John Barber. It incorporated many of the same elements of a modern gas turbine but used a reciprocating compressor. There are many more early examples of turbine engines designed by various inventors, but none were considered to be true gas turbines because they incorporated steam at some point in the process. In 1872 a man by the name of Stolze designed the first true gas turbine. His engine incorporated a multistage turbine section and a multi stage axial flow compressor. He tested working models in the early 1900's. Charles Curtis the inventor of the Curtis steam engine filed the first patent application in the U.S. for a gas turbine engine. His patent was granted in 1914 but not without some controversy. The General Electric company started their gas turbine division in 1903. An engineer named Stanford Moss lead most of the projects. His most outstanding development was the General Electric turbosupercharger during world war 1. ( Although credit for the concept is given to Rateau of France.) It used hot exhaust gasses from a reciprocating engine to drive a turbine wheel that in turn drove a centrifugal compressor used for supercharging. The evolutionary process of turbosupercharger design and construction made it possible to construct the first reliable gas turbine engines. Sir Frank Whittle of Great Britain patented a design for a jet aircraft engine in 1930.He first proposed using the gas turbine engine for propulsion in 1928 while a student at the Royal Air Force College in Cramwell, England. In 1941 an engine designed by Whittle was the first successful turbojet airplane flown in Great Britain. Concurrently with Whittle's development efforts, Hans von Ohain and Max Hahn, two students at Gottingen in Germany developed and patented their own engine design in 1936 these ideas were adapted by The Ernst Heinkel Aircraft company. The German Heinkel aircraft company is credited with the first flight of a gas turbine powered jet propelled aircraft on August 27th 1939.The HE178 was the first jet airplane to fly. The Heinkel HeS-3b developed 1100 lbs. of thrust and flew over 400 mph, later came the ME262, a 500 mph fighter, more than 1600 of these were built by the end of WWII. These engines were more advaced than the British planes and had such features as blade cooling and a variable area exhaust nozzles. In 1941Frank Whittle began flight tests of a turbojet engine of his own design in England. Eventually The General Electric company manufactured engines in the U.S. based on Whittle's design.
SFC CIRCUIT SFC Static Frequency Converter Frequency converter converts the frequency of ac current, that is it converts a 50 or 60 hz ac current to ac current of any desired frequency. The device may also change the voltage if it is required. Static frequency Converter (SFC). Function of SFC is to change the generator into the motor at start up process. This will rotate gas turbine for combustion. After combustion, gas turbine can turn generator then it SFC auto stop at 2000 rpm. 1 Introduction. The PCS100 Static Frequency Converter (SFC) is a low voltage (LV) AC-AC power electronic converter system. While the converter integrates all the electronics and sine wave filtering, it does require an isolation transformer for correct operation Static Frequency Converter Analysis Induction motor speed control requires a 3-phase power supply that can vary both voltage and frequency. Such a power supply creates a variable speed rotating field in the stator that allows the rotor to spin at the required speed with low slip. The static frequency converter can efficiently provide full torque from zero speed to full speed, can over speed if necessary, and can, by changing phase rotation, easily provide bi- directional operation of the induction motor. Although the principles of static frequency converters are not new, advances in power semiconductors, control electronics, and microprocessors have increased their
popularity. Adding to this are vector control methods that give the static frequency converter the capability and flexibility. Static Frequency Converter Following figure shows the essential elements of a static frequency converter. The 3- phase supply is rectified and filtered to produce a DC bus, which powers the inverter section of the static frequency converter. The inverter consists of three pairs of semiconductor switches (MOSFET, GTO, power transistor, IGBT, etc.) with associated diodes. Each pair of switches provides the power output for one phase of the motor. Each pair of semiconductor switches is driven by the control electronics to generate a high frequency square wave carrier pulse waveform at each of the phase outputs. Since the carrier is identical on all three phases, the net voltage appearing across any phase of the motor windings due to the carrier alone is zero. In order to drive the motor, the control electronics generate three low-frequency sine waves, 120 degrees apart, which modulate the carrier pulses to each pair of switches. The width of positive and negative pulse within each carrier cycle is modulated according to the amplitude of the low frequency sine waveform of that phase. As a result, the average voltage presented to the motor winding is approximately sinusoidal. The two other phases of the motor winding have similar average voltages spaced 120 degrees apart. Most frequency converters operate with a fixed carrier frequency that is several times higher than the highest output frequency that is to be used. As static static frequency converters operate with an output frequency from a few Hz up to about 100 Hz, they use a carrier frequency in the range of 2 kHz up to about 10 kHz. As power semiconductors improve, the trend is to increase carrier frequencies up to ultrasonic frequencies (> 18 kHz), which can lower losses in the motor since the current is more sinusoidal. The down side is higher switching losses in the inverter and potential for more radiated frequency noise. Thus, careful measurements must be made on static
frequency converter input and output to make the optimum carrier frequency choice for a given application. Although the static frequency converter output voltage contains a large number of frequency components other than the fundamental, these components are generally of higher frequency and suppressed by the inductance of the motor winding. However, a motor is not simply an inductor and it is therefore important that the modulation of the carrier frequency be designed to produce a current that is as sinusoidal as possible. In particular, care must be taken to minimize low order harmonic voltages as the impedance of the motor to these voltages is low. In practice, a static frequency converter produces a "wanted" component of current at the fundamental frequency and "unwanted" components of current at frequencies that are multiples or components of the fundamental frequency. The "unwanted" components in the motor current can lead to problems such as additional heat, reduced motor efficiency and lower power output. The effects of these unwanted components on the operation of the motor can be expressed by measurement of the fundamental and total output power of the inverter, by harmonic analysis of the voltage and current waveforms, and by torque/speed measurements on the motor. The most efficient static frequency converters are those that not only minimize losses in the converter, but also generate the most pure current waveforms to minimize power and torque losses. Motor Output Measurements Motor output measurements can be made by installing speed and torque transducers on the output shaft of the motor to calculate output power. In order to determine the efficiency of a motor and static frequency converter combination, the designer must consider both the electrical input to the system, and the mechanical power produced on the output of the motor. System efficiency is calculated from: (Power out / Power in) x 100% By measuring both the electrical power consumed on the input to the static frequency converter, as well as torque and speed on the motor‘s output, the efficiency of the system can be measured. The simplest approach to making this measurement is with a power analyzer that includes sensor inputs designed to connect torque and speed transducers. Static Frequency Converter Output As noted previously, the output waveform of a static frequency converter is very complex, consisting of a mixture of high frequency components due to the carrier and components at low frequency due to the fundamental current. This presents a problem
for some power analyzers that can either measure at high frequencies, in which case low frequency information in the waveform is lost, or they can filter the PWM waveform to measure at low frequencies, in which case high frequency data is lost. The difficulty occurs because the waveform is being modulated at low frequency. High frequency measurements, such as total rms voltage or total power must therefore be made at high frequency but over an integral number of cycles of the low frequency component in the output waveform. The latest power analyzers overcome this problem by using a special operating mode for static frequency converter output measurements. The data is sampled at high speed, and total quantities, including all harmonic and carrier components, are computed in real time. At the same time, the sampled data is digitally filtered to provide low frequency measurements such as fundamental and measurement of output frequency. In addition to providing both low and high frequency results from the same measurement, this technique allows the high frequency measurements to be synchronized to the low frequency signal, providing high frequency measurement results that are both accurate and stable. To perform a static frequency converter output measurement, a power analyzer is wired to the output in a three phase, three-wire configuration. For static frequency converters up to 30 A rms output current, the power analyzer can be wired directly into the static frequency converter output. For currents above this level, an external shunt or current transducer may be required. Once the analyzer is connected and configured, also ensure that the correct filter frequency range has been specified. Note that the Vrms, Arms, and Watts figures are measured from pre-filtered values and therefore include all high frequency components, whereas the fundamental values only consider contributions to work in the motor. It is normal to have a significant difference between the rms and fundamental voltage. Normally there is a smaller difference in current and watts because the inductive motor filters the current. High frequency losses may be estimated by the difference between the total watts and the fundamental watts read on the SUM channel. This represents electrical power delivered by the static frequency converter which does not contribute to mechanical output power and therefore adds to the heating of the motor. High Frequency Losses = Total Watts – Fundamental Watts This is a useful measurement when comparing static frequency converters. Static Frequency Converter DC bus Although the link between the input and the output section of the static frequency converter is referred to as the DC bus, the voltage and current in this bus are far from pure DC, so care must be taken in making the necessary measurements. DC bus measurements are best made on the input side of the storage capacitors, since
the current here is essentially low-frequency capacitor charging pulses from the AC supply, and free from the high frequency current pulses that may be drawn by the inverter section. If DC bus measurements are made on their own, a single channel of analyzer can be used. However, DC bus measurements are often made in conjunction with three-phase two-wire measurements of either the input or output of a static frequency converter. In this case the DC bus should be measured using one of the remaining channels operating independently. Suggested DC bus measurements are shown in following Table. Measurement Reason W Total power in dc bus. Can be used in efficiency calculations. Arms RMS charging current in d.c. bus. Useful for sizing conductor or fuses. AHO DC component of current in dc bus. This is smaller than Arms. VHO Mean voltage across storage capacitor. Vpk Peak voltage across storage capacitor. Table 1. Critical Measurement parameters for frequency converter DC bus. Static Frequency Converter Input The input circuitry of most static frequency converters is essentially a three-phase diode rectifier bridge with capacitor filter. The input current to such a circuit consists, on each input phase, of pulses of current that charge the storage capacitor as show in following figure. Input current is therefore a distorted current waveform, with a fundamental component at supply frequency, but with considerable harmonic content.
Input current drawn is essentially independent of the converter output frequency since the instantaneous power drawn by the static frequency converter is a constant, and therefore the current required from the input to charge the capacitor on the DC bus is a constant. The analyzer is wired to the input in 3-phase 3-wire configuration. In this wiring configuration it is possible to use a third channel of a power analyzer as an independent channel to measure, for example, the DC bus within the static frequency converter. If the readings vary too much, for example, when measuring on single-phase frequency converters, increasing averaging may help stabilize the measurements. Loss And Efficiency On any system, measurements of losses and efficiency are best made by making simultaneous measurements on the input and output of the system. This is particularly important for systems with high efficiency, such as static frequency converters. If separate measurements are made on input and output and the system is shut down between measurements to transfer instrumentation, one cannot always be certain that exactly the same load conditions exist for both measurements. Any unnoticed difference in load conditions will appear as an error in measured losses. The following method is effective for making measurements of static frequency converter efficiency and static frequency converter losses using a single power analyzer. Static frequency converters are now becoming the dominant method of induction motor variable speed controls, and are being used not only in industry, but in applications as diverse as electric vehicles and domestic air conditioners. Static frequency converters produce complex waveforms, both on their output to the motor, and also in the electrical supply to the frequency converter.
The output waveform of a static frequency converter is very complex, consisting of a mixture of high frequency components due to the carrier and components at low frequency due to the fundamental current. This presents a problem for some power analyzers that can either measure at high frequencies or they can filter the PWM waveform to measure at low frequencies. Modern power analyzer overcome this problem with a dedicated PWM mode that combines sampling and filtering to provide accurate measurements including input, outputs and efficiency. Abstract Static starting devices, also called static frequency converters (SFCs), have been utilized to start gas turbines in gas turbine combined cycle (GTCC) power plants, etc. In general, a gas turbine is started using a generator as a synchronous motor with a single-shaft arrangement that is rotated by the electric power fed from the SFC. Because the rotor position signal of the generator is indispensable for controlling the SFC, a mechanical position sensor is installed beside the rotor shaft. However, such mechanical position sensors require considerable time for installation and adjustment at the site. Therefore, a sensor less control method called the advanced position sensor (APS) has been developed and applied to an SFC. In this paper, we describe an SFC that employs this position sensor less control method. Further, we investigate the applicability of the APS by comparing the pulses of the two systems-APS and the traditional position sensor- observed during start-up. Starting for heavy-duty gas turbines load-commutated inverter (LCI) GE‘s LS2100e Static Starter is a load-commutated inverter (LCI)available in four power ratings: 8.5, 11, 14, and 22 MVA, matching the starting requirements of the largest gas turbine in the world. Part of the family As a member of the GE Mark* VIe Controls Technology family, the LS2100e communicates peer-to-peer on the Mark VIe UDH network to reduce field wiring and to improve data coordination between the starter, Ex2100e exciter, and Mark VIe turbine controller.
ControlST* is the common configuration tool for the GE Mark VIe controller family including LS2100e static starter. GE‘s HMI systems utilize common operator stations and engineer workstations to simplify plant operations and maintenance. To save capital costs, GE‘s static starter can be configured to start more than one turbine. This provides starting flexibility and choices between starting redundancy and cost savings. LS2100e can be applied as part of a new unit gas turbine installation, either as a replacement of any vintage of existing GE static starter or as a controls migration for the Innovation Series. Key benefits 1.Lower cost and minimal space requirement than other starting means for large gas turbines 2.Ability to generate sufficient current for high-acceleration torque requirements 3.Common Control ST* software suite supports a wide range of starting profiles to improve ease of operation and maintenance 4.Low mean-time-to-repair (MTTR) with detailed system diagnostics and an easy to repair design 5.Higher power, multi start capability enabled through an integrated liquid cooling system 6.Full system and digital front end (DFE) options to serve all starter modernization needs 7.Controls are part of GE‘s Mark VIe family with improved lifecycle management capabilities 8.Improved sequencing control in cross-over applications 9.Improved cooling system, sequencing, and power converter status annunciation Configuration options include: 10.A static starter for each gas turbine 11.A static starter for multiple gas turbines (up to four) 12.Two static starters cross-linked to multiple gas turbines (up to eight)
GT ACCESSORY DRIVES , RQUECONVERTER AND STARTINGCLUTCH Aerodynamic Torque Converter for Gas Turbines A new concept in transmissions for gas turbines, called an Aerodynamic Torque Converter, is proposed. The ATC is similar to a hydraulic torque converter but uses a compressible working fluid which results in several unique characteristics when combined with a gas turbine cycle. Control and operational aspects of the ATC are discussed and equations showing its basic thermodynamic characteristics are developed.
Definition of torque converter : a device for transmitting and amplifying torque especially by hydraulic means The stator directs the flow of transmission fluid inside the torque converter.— is a big upgrade from the GT-Line trim which only uses a regular torque converter automatic transmission. Compressor starting torque converter Abstract A large compressor (18) is powered by a single-shaft gas turbine (12) via shaft (14), gearbox (16) and a hydraulic torque converter (10), which is undersized relative to the maximum shaft power requirement of compressor (18). The hydraulic torque converter (10) has a lock-up device (40) that locks the impeller (24) and the turbine wheel (28) at 25% of the maximum shaft power requirement of compressor (18). Gas turbine (12) has a starter (34). Optionally, compressor (18) has its outlet connected to auxiliary compressor (50) that assists the starting process by decreasing the back pressure of compressor (18). Description 01.The present invention relates to methods and apparatus for starting single shaft gas turbine driven or electric motor driven compressor sets, and in a further embodiment relates to methods and apparatus for starting large single shaft gas turbine driven compressor sets of greater than 43,700 horsepower. Background of the Invention 02.Present compressor plants, such as those used in liquified natural gas (LNG) plants, use either the smaller two-shaft gas turbine driver (which has no driver compressor starting problems) or the larger, more cost-effective single-shaft gas turbine driver with its presently-associated complex compressor starting method and apparatus. While two-shaft gas turbine drivers are suitable for starting compressors, they are commercially unavailable a in sizes greater than 43,700 horsepower. There is a need for a device which can efficiently start single-shaft gas turbine driven centrifugal compressor sets in processes requiring total power up to 350,000 horsepower and more. 03.Large single-shaft gas turbines have a standard starting system that at most can only start up the gas turbine driver itself and an unloaded, connected electric generator. A specific problem with the single-shaft gas turbine is that everything
is connected mechanically on a single common shaft, hence the starting device must start up not only the gas turbine itself, but also the connected load (for example, an electric generator or centrifugal compressor). Everything must be started up and accelerated simultaneously from rest continuously up to full speed. The added load produced by an electric generator in an unloaded state, that is, not connected to the electrical power grid during starting, can be handled by a single-shaft gas turbine's standard starting system, but not the inertia and aerodynamic loads associated with a large centrifugal compressor. 04.For starting up large, single-shaft gas turbine compressor sets, an additional starting device (an electric motor or steam turbine helper driver or engine) is typically added at the outboard free end of the driven compressor . This starting device can either be a steam turbine driver or an electric motor driver, which typically includes a Variable Frequency Electrical Drive system (VFD) to provide variable speed. The electric motor driver requires an external source of electric current, while the steam turbine requires an external source of steam, hence both starting device types are not independent or stand-alone devices. Because both of these systems, in turn, have many sub-systems, they are costly, complex, and are very maintenance intensive. 05.Further, many times because of a remote location, a plant does not have a readily available nearby electrical grid or a steam system. Steam systems require a large source of water. In addition, it is generally more economical to utilize air instead of water for cooling. 06.It is desirable to provide a method and apparatus to start up large loads, such as centrifugal compressors, axial compressors and the like, which is simpler, lower in cost, and requires less maintenance than the systems currently available. Summary of the Invention 07.Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a less costly, less complex, less maintenance-intensive, more reliable and more efficient device and method utilizing proven equipment for starting up compressors and specifically single- shaft, gas turbine-driven or electric motor-driven compressor sets. 08.Again it is desirable to provide a device and method that can be used to start up centrifugal compressors, axial compressors, and combinations thereof. 09.Once again it is desirable to allow the more cost-effective single-shaft gas turbine to be used more readily for gas turbine compressor drivers. 10.In carrying out these and other objects of the invention, there is provided, in one form, a power transmission system for driving at least one compressor. The system has a driver, where one end of the shaft is the driver output shaft. A
compressor starting torque converter (CSTC) is also present which has a pump impeller on an input shaft and a turbine wheel on an output shaft, where the CSTC input shaft is coaxially connected to the driver output shaft. Further, there is a compressor with an input shaft coaxially connected to the CSTC output shaft. The CSTC further comprises a lock-up device between the pump impeller and the turbine wheel to lock the impeller and the turbine wheel together. The driver may be a single shaft gas turbine or an electric motor. The compressor may be a centrifugal compressor, an axial compressor or a combination thereof. 11.It will be appreciated that the Figures are not to scale or proportion as it is simply a schematic for illustration purposes. Even in the schematic, the compressor starting torque converter (CSTC) is oversized with respect to the other components of the system, to show detail. Detailed Description of the Invention 13.The invention herein employs an improved starting method for starting compressors and specifically compressor trains driven by a single shaft gas turbine machine, such as are used in liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants, namely, using a compressor starting torque converter (CSTC) located between the gas turbine output shaft and the compressor input shaft. Preferably the compressor is either a centrifugal compressor, an axial compressor or a combination of the two. Most preferably the compressor is a centrifugal compressor. 14.Referring to FIG.1 in general terms, the CSTC consists of a torque converter (which can be drained of its working oil ) and a lock-up device that mechanically connects the gas turbine's output shaft to the driven compressor's input shaft . 15.Briefly, there are two operating modes for the CSTC namely (i) "Start-Up" and (ii) "Normal Operation". "Start-Up" involves the filled torque converter being in operation while in "Normal Operation", the torque converter is drained and out of operation while the lock-up device is engaged mechanically connecting the gas turbine directly to the compressor (and not via the fluid 30 in the torque converter as in "Start-Up"). Briefly, in use, oil is first drained from the CSTC's torque converter to uncouple the driven centrifugal compressor from the gas turbine , and then the gas turbine is started conventionally. With the gas turbine at minimum governing speed, the CSTC is re-filled and then the centrifugal compressor is started by increasing the power output from the gas turbine . Once the centrifugal compressor is up to a speed which closely matches the gas turbine speed, a lock-up device is activated mechanically connecting the gas turbine to the centrifugal compressor . 16.While the invention is expected to find utility in starting up compressors for LNG plants and other closed refrigeration cycles, particularly propane refrigeration cycles, it is expected that the invention will find utility in starting and
driving compressors, preferably centrifugal and/or axial compressors, in other type processes, utilizing single-shaft gas turbine drivers or electric motors. 17.The invention will be described more specifically with reference to FIG. 1. Shown in FIG. is a power transmission system , having a single shaft gas turbine (GT) , a CSTC and at least one compressor with their respective shafts in coaxial alignment. A conventional gearbox may be present between the output shaft of the single shaft gas turbine and the input shaft of the CSTC only if the speed of turbine and required speed of compressor do not match. 18.The CSTC is an enclosed mechanical device consisting of an input shaft having centrifugal pump impeller thereon and an independent output shaft having an associated turbine wheel thereon. The working medium is oil or other suitable hydraulic fluid, and when the centrifugal pump impeller is rotated by having energy put into it from the gas turbine , the turbine wheel rotates, that is, energy is transmitted out of CSTC via output shaft . In other words, the mechanical energy input to the input shaft and centrifugal pump impeller is first transformed into hydraulic energy by the pump impeller , and then converted from hydraulic energy back into mechanical energy by the turbine wheel and delivered out of CSTC by output shaft , which in FIG. 1 is identical to the input shaft of compressor . The arrows in FIG. 1 show the circulation path of the oil . 19.Two shafts ( and ) hydraulically coupled by a fluid (oil ) is defined as a fluid coupling, while a fluid coupling with guide vanes in the fluid circulation path is defined as a torque converter, a well-known machine perhaps most commonly encountered in the automatic transmission of automobiles. The orientation of the guide vanes help determine the torque amplification produced by the CSTC . 20.A torque converter has a characteristic torque output (or twisting capacity) curve of maximum torque output at zero speed, with decreasing torque output at increasing speed. This is ideal because the driven compressor has the exact opposite torque input requirements, and a characteristic curve of zero torque at zero speed and increasing torque with increasing speed. The excess available output torque of a torque converter at low speeds over the small input torque required by the compressor results in the ability of the gas turbine driver to accelerate the large mass and inertia of the driven compressor (s) from rest up to speed. 21.A unique feature of the CSTC is the ability to drain and refill the unit of its operating fluid , which is the media used for transmitting energy and the transformation of energy. The mechanical shaft energy input into the CSTC is transmitted by and transformed by the fluid in the unit into mechanical shaft output energy, when the lock up device is not activated. By draining the fluid from the CSTC , the input shaft and output shaft are physically decoupled, meaning that there is no connection whatsoever between the input shaft with the output shaft .
22.The basic operating principle behind the CSTC (as used in the power transmission system shown) is to first drain the CSTC of its fluid , and allow the single shaft gas turbine 's standard starting device to start the gas turbine itself. Once operational, the starting device is dropped out of operation and the gas turbine brings itself up to minimum governing speed as it normally would if it were connected to an unloaded electrical generator (not shown). Conventional starting device typically drops out and is disconnected once the gas turbine is up to about 40% of operating speed. Such starting devices or motors typically produce approximately 300 to 1,000 hp and greater. However in the case of the invention, the job is easier as there is no connected electrical generator or other load. Once the gas turbine is up to speed and ready to accept load, the CSTC is re-filled and the compressor(s) brought up to speed by the gas turbine driver through the CSTC in a timed manner. 23.In other words, the fundamental principle is a device which allows the driven compressor (s) to be isolated (de-coupled) from the gas turbine driver , allowing the gas turbine's standard starter system to start and bring the gas turbine itself up to self-sustaining speed, without the driven compressor. When the gas turbine is operational, up to minimum governing speed and ready to be loaded, the gas turbine driver, through the CSTC , starts up the compressor . Although torque converter operation during start-up is inefficient, it is quite short term. Once locked-up, as during normal operation, the torque converter is no longer in operation. An additional advantage of the invention is that start-up time is reduced significantly, as compared with prior art processes. Starting up the compressor using the procedure of this invention is estimated to take from about 0.5 to about 2.0 minutes. 24.Although normally a single-shaft gas turbine cannot start up both itself and a centrifugal compressor from rest, it can start the compressor 1once the turbine itself is operational and up to speed. The CSTC makes this possible. In essence, there is a two-phase start-up. First, the gas turbine itself is started, then the gas turbine starts the compressor by means of the CSTC . 25.Once the compressor (s) are up to speed, or output shaft (compressor input shaft) speed at least closely matches (to within 2 % of its speed) CSTC input shaft speed, lock up device is engaged to physically connect gas turbine to centrifugal compressor . Lock up device , shown in more detail in FIG. 3, has a circular, one piece lock-up ring having teeth on the inside and outside thereof, and is mechanically bolted to a circular, single piece engagement piston . Hydraulic pressure moves the locking ring /engagement piston towards the centrifugal pump impeller (to the left in FIGS. 1 and 3) to physically connect pump impeller with turbine wheel . The hydraulic fluid to move locking ring /engagement piston is admitted through engagement piston hydraulic fluid inlet . The CSTC thus becomes a mechanical connection device or gear coupling with extremely low power transmission loss. In one non-limiting embodiment, the transmission efficiency would be approximately 99.5% in lock-up mode
(approximately 0.5% power loss). This is the "Normal Operation" Mode for the gas turbine/CSTC/compressor unit of system and in this mode, the compressor would inherit the speed variation capability of the gas turbine . 26.Also shown in FIG. 1 is compressor discharge line , high stage flash gas stream , intermediate stage flash gas stream , and low stage flash gas stream returning back to compressor . On existing processes and apparatus, as shown in prior art FIG. 2, if the start-up motor or stream turbine driver (located at the free, non-driven shaft end of compressor ) is not large enough, the gas pressure inside compressor has to be reduced, typically by venting it, sometimes down to almost a vacuum, in order to get compressor started. With the present invention, the compressor does not have to be vented thus avoiding losing a valuable gas like propane to the atmosphere. 27.If the CSTC or other equipment is not powerful enough to start compressor , one option is to add a small auxiliary compressor parallel to and in the compressor discharge line to draw down the pressure somewhat. Lowering the pressure in the process loop lowers compressor start-up power requirements. In one non-limiting embodiment, auxiliary compressor is envisioned to be a screw compressor. 28.An advantage of the CSTC of the invention is that it is a simple, independent, self-sufficient, stand-alone mechanical device that is not a driver or an engine, and thus does not have the complexities and costs associated with a driver or engine nor requires an external power source. While by itself, the CSTC is not a starting device, when skillfully used in conjunction with a single-shaft gas turbine , it allows the single-shaft gas turbine itself to act as the driver to start up the driven compressor(s) , a feat a single-shaft gas turbine normally cannot do. In other words, another complicated driver is not required to start up the total gas turbine compressor system. 29.The invention permits single-shaft gas turbine drivers to be readily used instead of steam turbine drivers. Steam turbine drivers do not have centrifugal compressor start-up problems because-its high pressure motive fluid (steam) is available (from a separate source) before compressor start-up while in a single- shaft gas turbine no hot motive fluid (gas from the gas turbine itself) is available until the gas turbine is started and is up and running. Gas turbines are a less costly alternative to steam turbine drivers because no steam generation equipment is needed and the cooling system is smaller. Gas turbines have a higher thermal efficiency than steam turbines, are more compact, more reliable, and offer a faster start-up. Further, the time taken to manufacture and install a gas turbine is shorter than for a comparable steam turbine system. 30.In another embodiment, the CSTC also can eliminate costly, special and complex motors with variable frequency drives for future motor-driven integrally- geared LNG compressors. The CSTC will allow standard, less costly and more
reliable fixed speed electric motors to be used. The main drive electric motor can be started up unloaded by using a small electric motor starter with the CSTC drained mechanically isolating the main drive motor from the compressor. After the main drive electric motor is brought up unloaded to full speed and then connected to the electric grid, the CSTC can be filled and the compressor started. Although little or no speed control is available with the CSTC in this arrangement, compressor capacity control can still be obtained, for example, by adding compressor inlet guide vanes (a standard option on integrally-geared compressors employed in LNG liquefaction processes and on some normal centrifugal compressors). 31.An additional advantage of the invention is that if there is a process trip or problem, the invention permits only the compressor or other process to cease without necessarily tripping the gas turbine . The procedure would be to first unload the compressor until the lock-up device can be disengaged and allow the compressor to coast to a standstill while the gas turbine is kept operational but at minimal speed. Stopping and re-starting a gas turbine is a complicated, lengthy process one tries to avoid. 32.A related advantage of the invention is ease of maintenance. In the present invention, the compressor , as one example, is automatically decoupled from the gas turbine upon draining of the torque converter and the compressor can then be serviced with no fear of physical danger to repair personnel and surrounding equipment. 33.Starting-up a gas turbine is a complex, detailed procedure as it is by nature a mini power plant which runs hot hence rate of temperature rise throughout the machine must be regulated and controlled in a very strict manner. Thus starting- up, shutting down and restarting of a gas turbine is to be avoided or at least minimized as much as possible. The absolute best operating condition for a gas turbine is continuous operation as starting and stopping shortens its life and increases the required maintenance. In the present state of the art, if any component causes a problem during starting; the gas turbine most probably has to be stopped and restarted. With the CSTC , the gas turbine is isolated from the compressor that allows, for example, the gas turbine to be started while the compressor and the process is being readied. The gas turbine once started can be idled until the compressor and process are ready to be started. If after normal operation begins, problems occur for example with the compressor and/or the process during starting, the gas turbine does not need to be stopped and instead the CSTC simply has to be drained which isolates the gas turbine. The gas turbine can be kept idling while the problem (s) in the compressor and/or process are worked out. 34.Further, the apparatus and controllability method of the invention is simpler than prior art start up devices and procedures, since the coupling of the
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
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A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf
A BOOK ON BASIC CONCEPT OF MODERN POWER PLANTS by khalid ayaz soomro.pdf