Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks

Lumbini ICT Campus
Tribhuvan University
Gaindakot -2 , Nawalparasi, Nepal
Institute of Science and Technology (IOST)
Final year project on
“Analysis of Packet on the basis of Delay on IPv6 and IPv4 Networks in
Open Short Path First Routing Protocol ”
[CSC – 404]
A final year project report submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Bachelors of Science in Computer Science and Information Technology
awarded by Tribhuvan University
Under the supervision of
Er. Sulav Adhikari
Co-ordinator, Lumbini ICT Campus
Submitted by :
Kaushik Raj Panta (T.U Roll no. 3865)
Rabin Ghimire (T.U Roll no.3874)
Bishnu Sapkota (T.U Roll no.3859)
Sudip Kafle (T.U Roll no.3879)
Submitted to
Lumbini ICT Campus,
Department of Computer Science and Information Technology
Gaindakot – 2, Nawalparasi
September 11, 2017

Analysis of Packet on the basis of Delay on IPv6 and IPv4 Networks in
Open Short Path First Routing Protocol
[CSC – 404]
A final year project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and
Information Technology awarded by Tribhuvan University
Submitted by :
Kaushik Raj Panta (T.U Roll no. 3865)
Rabin Ghimire (T.U Roll no. 3874)
Bishnu Sapkota (T.U Roll no. 3859)
Sudip Kafle (T.U Roll no. 3879)
Submitted to
Lumbini ICT Campus,
Department of Computer Science and Information Technology
Gaindakot – 2, Nawalparasi
September 11, 2017

Lumbini ICT Campus
Tribhuvan University
SUPERVISOR RECOMMENDATION
I hereby recommend that this project prepared under my supervision by Kaushik Raj Panta,
Bishnu Sapkota, Rabin Ghimire and Sudeep Kafle entitled “Analysis of Packet on the
basis of Delay on IPv6 and IPv4 Networks in Open Short Path First Routing
Protocol” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelors of Science in
Computer Science and Information Technology be processed for the evaluation.
………………………..
Er. Sulav Adhikari
Co-ordinator, Lumbini ICT Campus
I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance from
many individuals and we are very fortunate to have got this all along the duration of this
project. We would like to extend our sincere thanks and gratitude to our respected supervisor
and Co-ordinator of Lumbini ICT Campus, Er. Sulav Adhikari, Department of Computer
Science and Information Technology for his valuable suggestions, guidance, encouragement
and inspirations that assisted us in completing this work. His useful recommendations and co-
operative behavior are sincerely acknowledged.
An honorable mention also goes to Er Kumar Pudasaini, for his understanding and support
during our project. He was highly valuable to us in completing the project work. Furthermore
A big thanks goes to Mr Rahul Sakya. We are indebted to them for making their valuable
time available to us, to answer our questions and queries.
Nevertheless a big thanks go to the family of Lumbini ICT Campus and all of my friends for
guiding us through out the project and helping in our project directly and indirectly.
Kaushik Raj Panta
Rabin Ghimire
Bishnu Sapkota
Sudeep Kafle
II

ABSTRACT
In a packet network, the term packet delay characterizes as the difference in end-to-end one-
way delay between selected packets in a flow with any lost packets being ignored. The effect is
sometimes referred to as jitter, although the definition is an imprecise fit. The delay is specified
from the start of the packet being transmitted at the source to the start of the packet being
received at the destination. Analysis of packet delay in both protocol IPv4 and IPv6 is
essential to measure network performance.
This project entitled “Analysis of Packet on the basis of Delay on IPv6 and IPv4
Networks in Open Short Path First Routing Protocol” intends to analyze the packet
delay in both protocol IPv4 and IPv6 under the same condition and find out the fact that
which one is better in term of packet delay parameter of network performance. Due to the
insufficient IPv4 addresses and other issues, the world should migrate to IPv6 in near future.
So, measuring the network parameter is necessary.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol networks. It uses
a link state routing algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating
within a single autonomous system. It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in IPv4 and the updates
for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3.
This project deals with the techniques of measure and analyze the packet delay. As, the
number of Internet users growing exponentially, it is really necessary to reduce the packet
delay in every possible way to improve network performance.
Keywords: Packet delay, IPv4, IPv6, OSPF, Dual Stack.
III

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUPERVISOR RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………………….I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………..II
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….....III
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………..VII
LIST OF TABLES………………………….…………………………………………………….IX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………..X
CHAPTER – 1 : INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of Project....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem...............................................................................................................2
1.3 Project Question.............................................................................................................................3
1.4 Scope of the Project........................................................................................................................3
1.5 Report Structure..............................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER – 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................5
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Related Technologies......................................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Internet Protocol.....................................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Internet Protocol version 4......................................................................................................6
2.2.2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.2 IPv4 Packet Header.........................................................................................................6
2.2.2.3 IPv4 Addressing Scheme................................................................................................7
2.2.2.4 Classfull and Classless IPv4 Protocol.............................................................................7
2.2.2.5 Problem with IPv4..........................................................................................................8
2.2.3 Internet Protocol version 6......................................................................................................9
2.2.3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................9
2.2.3.2 IPv6 Packet Header.........................................................................................................9
2.2.3.3 IPv6 Addressing Format and Scheme...........................................................................10
2.2.3.4 The Advantages of IPv6................................................................................................10
2.2.4 Routing Protocols.................................................................................................................12
2.2.4.1 Autonomous System.....................................................................................................12
2.2.4.2 Interior Routing Protocol..............................................................................................13
2.2.4.2.1 Distance Vector Routing Protocol.........................................................................13
2.2.4.2.2 Link State Routing Protocol..................................................................................13
2.2.4.2.3 Hybrid Routing Protocol.......................................................................................14
2.2.4.3 Exterior Routing Protocol.............................................................................................14
2.2.5 Open Short Path First............................................................................................................14
2.2.5.1 OSPF Interfaces............................................................................................................15
2.2.5.2 OSPF Areas...................................................................................................................15
2.2.5.3 OSPFv3 vs OSPFv2......................................................................................................16
2.2.5.4 OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Header Comparison...................................................................16
2.2.5.5 Hello Packet Comparison..............................................................................................16
2.2.6 Internet Control Message Protocol.......................................................................................17
2.2.6.1 ICMPv4.........................................................................................................................17
2.2.6.2 ICMPv6.........................................................................................................................17
2.2.7 Quality of Service.................................................................................................................18
2.2.7.1 QOS Basic Architecture................................................................................................18
2.2.7.2 Qualities of QOS...........................................................................................................19
2.2.8 Latency..................................................................................................................................20
IV

2.2.8.2 Latency testing..............................................................................................................21
2.2.8.3 Reducing latency...........................................................................................................21
2.2.9 Network Latency...................................................................................................................21
2.2.9.1 Types of Packet Delays.................................................................................................21
2.2.9.2 Types of Delays in Packet Switch Networks................................................................22
2.2.9.3 Cause of Packet Delays.................................................................................................22
2.2.9.4 Ways to reduce Reduce Packet Delays.........................................................................22
2.2.10 Dual Stack...........................................................................................................................23
2.2.10.1 Dual Stack Transition Mechanism..............................................................................24
2.3 Review of Conceptual Prospective of the study...........................................................................24
2.4 Related Literature Review............................................................................................................25
2.6 Development of Conceptual Framework of the study..................................................................28
CHAPTER – 3 : METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................30
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................30
3.2 Hypothesis....................................................................................................................................30
3.3 Research Methods for study.........................................................................................................30
3.4 Data Collection Tools and Methods.............................................................................................31
CHAPTER – 4 : EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN...................................................................................32
4.1 Hardware Specifications...............................................................................................................32
4.2 Software Specifications................................................................................................................32
4.3 Network Design............................................................................................................................33
4.3.1 Virtual Network Design........................................................................................................33
4.3.2 Actual Network Design.........................................................................................................34
4.3.3 IP Addressing Scheme..........................................................................................................34
4.3.3.1 IPv4 Addressing............................................................................................................34
4.3.3.2 IPv6 addressing.............................................................................................................37
4.3.4 OSPF Configurations............................................................................................................37
4.3.4.1 OSPF Configuration for IPv4 Addresses......................................................................37
4.3.4.1 OSPF configuration for Ipv6 Addresses.......................................................................38
4.4 Testing..........................................................................................................................................40
4.4.1 Ping Testing..........................................................................................................................40
4.4.2 HTTP Server Testing............................................................................................................41
4.4.3 FTP Server Testing................................................................................................................42
4.4.4 E-Mail Testing......................................................................................................................43
4.4.4.1 E-Mail Testing over IPv4..............................................................................................43
4.4.4.2 E-Mail Testing over IPv6..............................................................................................44
4.5 Project Time line...........................................................................................................................46
4.6 Project Grant Chart.......................................................................................................................47
CHAPTER – 5 : DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS...............................................................48
5.1 Data Collection Process................................................................................................................48
5.2 Plotting the RTT of each packet in each condition.......................................................................49
5.3 Graphing the total RTT of packet in each condition....................................................................51
CHAPTER – 6 : DISCUSSION.........................................................................................................55
6.1 Plotting the individual RTT of Packets.........................................................................................55
6.1.1 Variable Header Size.............................................................................................................55
6.1.2 Priority and Processing Delay...............................................................................................55
6.2 Plotting the average RTT of packets in dual stack and single stack mode...................................56
CHAPTER – 7 : CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................57
7.1 Limitations....................................................................................................................................57
7.2 Future Enhancement.....................................................................................................................58
V

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................59
APPENDIX........................................................................................................................................63
Configuration of Router -1 at Side -1............................................................................................63
Configuration of Router – 2 of Side 2...........................................................................................65
Configuration of Main Router.......................................................................................................68
Building Configuration…..............................................................................................................68
Python Program For Plotting Each Packets RTT forming a line Graph........................................71
Python Program for Plotting Average RTT of Packets forming a Bar Graph....................72
VI

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure-1: Packet header of IPv4
Figure-2: Quad-dotted IPv4 address representation
Figure-3: Packet header of IPv6
Figure-4: Area system of OSPF
Figure-5: OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 header comparison
Figure-6: OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 hello packet comparison
Figure-7: Header of ICMP version 4
Figure-8: Header of ICMP version 6
Figure-9: Basic architecture of QoS
Figure-10: Virtual Network Design
Figure-11: Actual Network Design
Figure-12: Dividing network into side-1, side-2 and main-router
Figure-13: Assigning IPV4 address
Figure-14: Assigning IPV6 address
Figure-15: OSPFv2 configuration
Figure-16: OSPFv2 route Discovery
Figure-17: OSPFv2 neighbor discovery
Figure-18: OSPFv3 configuration
Figure-19: OSPFv3 route Discovery
Figure-20: OSPFv3 neighbor Discovery
Figure-21: IPV4 communication between two sides
Figure-22: IPV6 communication between two sides
Figure-23: HTTP server test in IPv4
Figure-24: HTTP server test in IPv6
Figure-25: FTP server test in IPV4
Figure-26: FTP server test in IPV6
Figure-27: Email compose from admin to client in IPv4
Figure-28: Email sent result from admin to client in IPv4
Figure-29: Email reply result in client in IPv4
Figure-30: Email receive in client in IPv4
Figure-31: Email send in IPv6 from admin
Figure-32: Send success from admin
Figure-33: Email receive at client
VII

Figure-34: Reply from user to admin
Figure-35: User reply mail at admin
Figure-36: Ping process information
Figure-37: Plotting each individual packet RTT forming graph example
Figure-38: Plotting total RTT of packet in each condition forming bar graph
Figure-39: Overall project time line
Figure-40: Project grant chart
Figure–41 : Plotting Each individual Packet RTT forming graph at 512 Bytes
Figure–44 : Plotting total RTT of Packets in Each Condition when 512 bytes
VIII

LIST OF TABLES
Table – 1 : Hardware Requirements
Table – 2 : Plotting total RTT of Packets in Each Condition when 512 bytes
Table – 5 : Difference in Total Average RTT in both Network i.e. Avg RTT of IPv6 – Avg
RTT of IPv4
IX

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IP = Internet Protocol
IPv4 = Internet Protocol version 4
IPv6 = Internet Protocol version 6
OSPF = Open Short Path First
TCP/IP = Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
VoIP = Voice over Internet Protocol
IETF = Internet Engineering task Force
NGTrans = Next Generation Transition
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
UDP = User Datagram Protocol
RTT = Round Trip Time
IGP = Interior Gateway Protocol
NAT = Network Address Translation
LSR = Link State Routing
CIDR = Classless Inter Domain Routing
QoS = Quality of Service
PDV = Packet Delay Variation
DSCP = Differentiated Services Code Point
ECN = Explicit Congestion Notification
IGMP = Internet Group Message Protocol
SAP = Service Access Point
VLSM = Variable Length Subnet Mask
RFC = Request For Comments
RIPv1/RIPv2 = Routing Information Protocol version 1/ version 2
BGP = Border Gateway Protocol
EIGRP = Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
IPSec = Internet Protocol Security
TOS = Type of Service
DHCP = Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
EGP = Exterior Gateway Protocol
IXP = Internet Exchange Point
X

CDN = Content Delivery Networks
AS = Autonomous System
ICMP = Internet Control Message Protocol
CSV = Comma Separated Values
NIC = Network Interface Card
LTS = Long Term Support
TEP = Tunnel End Point
XI

CHAPTER – 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Project
Internet Protocol is the standard protocol being used on the Internet which allows computers
to be able to communicate in order to exchange information such as data, voice, and Video.
IPv4 is the current Internet protocol that is widely used across the Internet, but in the near
future, there exist issues like insufficient public Internet Protocol version 4 address space that
does not allow the growth of the Internet. Nowadays, most of mobile devices are required to
have an IP address to connect to the Internet which leads to high consumption of IP address.
Internet Engineer Task Force has considered this issue and proposed a new version of Internet
Protocol namely IPv6 .
IPv6 is the solution to the massive growth of the Internet due to the size of the address spaces.
IPv6 addressing contains 128 bits binary value that provide 2^128 addresses. In the near
future the current IPv4 will slowly migrate to IPv6. Sailan, Hassan, and Patel state that
“Currently IPv6 network penetration is still low but it is expected to grow, while IPv4 address
pool is projected by Regional Internet Registry to be exhausted by the end of 2011”[1].
Migration from IPv4 to IPv6 is the the work done in single day because there exists some
issues in both networks. During the migration period there will be compatibility and
interoperability issues relating to IPv4 and IPv6 because IPv6 is not backward compatible
with IPv4. Govil, Govil, Kaur, and Kaur states that “The transition between IPv4 Internet
and IPv6 will be a long process as they are two completely separate protocols and it is
impossible to switch the entire Internet over to IPv6 over night. IPv6 is not backward
compatible with IPv4 and IPv4 hosts and routers will not be able to deal directly with IPv6
traffic and vice- versa” [2]. As IPv4 and IPv6 will co-exist for a long time, this requires the
transition and inter-operation mechanisms. Migrating from IPv4 to IPv6 is a complicated task
that cannot be done overnight. The size and complexity of the Internet cause this migration
task to become enormously difficult and time consuming. Next Generation Transition
proposed three main transition mechanisms that included dual stack, tunneling, and
translation [3]. These solution allow IPv4 to be able to coexist with IPv6 during the migration
period.
A Computer Network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices,
peripherals, or other devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of data. An
excellent example of a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people all over the
world [4].
The IP is designed for use in interconnected systems of packet-switched computer
communication networks. The Internet protocol provides for transmitting blocks of data
called datagrams from sources to destinations, where sources and destinations are hosts
identified by fixed length addresses. The Internet protocol also provides for fragmentation and
reassembly of long datagrams [5].
IPv4 is the one of the core connectionless protocols of standards-based inter networking
methods of Packet Switched Network which operates on a best effort delivery model i.e. it
1

does not guarantee delivery nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate
delivery. IPV4 uses 32-bit address scheme which limits the address space to 232
addresses
represented by integer value written in the dot-decimal notation consisting of four octets
expressed individually in decimal numbers and separated by periods [6].
IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched inter networking and provides end-to-
end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the design
principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address,
theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4X1038 addresses. It simplifies aspects of
address assignment, network renumbering, and router announcements when changing
network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the
responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points [7].
OSPF is an IGP that follows LSR Algorithm for routing IP packets solely with in a single
routing domain i.e. an Autonomous system. It gathers link state information from available
routers and constructs a topology map of the network. OSPF is based on Dijkstra Algorithm
for finding shortest path and supports IPv4 and IPv6 networks and supports the CIDR
addressing model [8].
QoS is a set of technologies that work on a network to guarantee its ability to dependably run
high-priority applications and traffic under limited network capacity. Achieving the required
QoS by managing the delay, delay variation, bandwidth, and packet loss parameters on a
network becomes the secret to a successful end-to-end business solution [9].
Packet Delay is the difference in end-to-end one-way delay between selected packets in a flow
with any lost packets being ignored. The effect is sometimes referred to as jitter, although the
definition is an imprecise fit. The Packet Delay is the difference between the one-way-delay of
the selected packets [10].
The main target of this research is to study the performance between the IPv4 and IPv6 on the
basis of Packet Delay when implemented on both Dual Stack and Single Stack Mode in OSPF
routing Protocols. The result of this research will discuss later in this report.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Networking is an important factor in every sector in today’s world. All computers if linked to
one another provide a lot of benefit such as file or resource sharing, flexibility and boosting of
storage capacity. If networking is not done in any organization.
First of all let us explore the problems in IPv4 and there are two main problems with IPv4.
First of all, today, there are 7.3 billion people in the world. Half of them own a computer of
some sort, and 6 billion have access to mobile phones. If we handed out just one IPv4 address
to every person, we would be 3 billion IP addresses short. This makes reclaiming lost address
space essentially pointless. Obviously, more addresses are needed for a modern Internet. The
other problem with IPv4 is NAT. Overloaded NAT, one IP with multiple private IP’s behind
it breaks quite a few applications and provides no additional security against Internet threats.
This results in a cost increase with no counter-benefit.
2

IPv4 lacks of efficient routing because each and every IPv4 network prefix might be different
inside the single organization too due to which routing gets difficult. Not only this in an IPv4
network too fragmentation is handled by the router not by the source devices.
IPv4 contains an IP - level checksum, so the checksum is calculated at every router hop. But
with most link-layer technologies already containing checksum and error-control capabilities,
and most transport layers having a checksum that enables error detection where the routers
spent most of time checking packet integrity before moving the packets.
Regarding the above mentioned problems, if we migrate to IPv6 network we can some how
eradicate maximum of the problems that are arising in IPv4 networks currently.
1.3 Project Question
Before the starting of the project, we had a meet up and discussed about the real scenario of
project and the questions that can arises throughout the completion of our project. By the end
of that meeting we had concluded the following as Project Questions:
1) Will the IPv6 gives better performance on the basis of packet delay as compared to
IPv4 in same condition?
2) Which mode will give better performance, Dual Stack or Single Stack?
3) Is the parameter Packet Delay is sufficient for measuring the performance of the
network?
4) Why should we choose IPv6 over IPv4?
1.4 Scope of the Project
Project scope is the part of project planning that involves determining and documenting a list
of specific project goals, deliverables, features, functions, tasks, deadlines, and ultimately
costs. In other words, it is what needs to be achieved and the work that must be done to
deliver a project. The main purpose of the scope definition is to clearly describe the boundaries
of your project.
The Scopes of our project are as follows :
1) To experiment the performance of IPv4 and IPv6 networks individually and in Dual
Stack mode on the basis of Packet Delay.
2) To analyze the performance of IPv4 and IPv6 networks individually and in Dual Stack
mode on the basis of Packet Delay.
3) To encourage for using IPv6 over IPv4.
1.5 Report Structure
The overview of our project is given below :
Chapter 1 : Introduction
3

In this chapter we basically introduces background of our project, its significance as well as its
scope including the definition of key terms that we are using in our project.
Chapter – 2 : Literature Review
In this chapter we review about conceptual perspective of our study, related documents and
selected cases and best practices.
Chapter-3 : Methodology
In this chapter we introduces Hypothesis of our study, Research Methods, data collection
tools and methods and how to process it.
Chapter – 4 : Experimental Designated
In this chapter we discuss about Hardware and Software Specification of our network, Virtual
and Actual Network Design, Ip Addressing Schemes, OSPF configuration , system testing and
Data Collection Process. This chapter also includes the Gantt Chart of our project.
Chapter – 5 : Data Collection and Analysis
In this chapter we present the data that we gathered for analysis as well describe it.
Presentation of data will be based on plotting the individual RTT of each packets and Plotting
the total RTT of packets in each condition.
Chapter – 6 : Discussion
In this chapter we discuss about the findings from the results of the experiments of this
research.
Chapter – 7 : Conclusion
In this chapter we summarize and conclude our results and test the acceptance and rejection of
our hypothesis. Here we too focus on the improvement of Network Performance as well as
provide the suggestions for the future enhancements.
4

CHAPTER – 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
A literature review is a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge
including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a
particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and do not report new or original
experimental work. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such reviews are
found in academic journals, and are not to be confused with book reviews that may also
appear in the same publication. Literature reviews are a basis for research in nearly every
academic field. A narrow-scope literature review may be included as part of a peer-reviewed
journal article presenting new research, serving to situate the current study within the body of
the relevant literature and to provide context for the reader. In such a case, the review usually
precedes the methodology and results sections of the work.
2.2 Related Technologies
2.2.1 Internet Protocol
The IP is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying
datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables inter networking, and
essentially establishes the Internet. The Internet protocol provides for transmitting blocks of
data called datagrams from sources to destinations, where sources and destinations are hosts
identified by fixed length addresses. The Internet protocol also provides for fragmentation
and reassembly of long datagrams. The Internet protocol is specifically limited in scope to
provide the functions necessary to deliver a package of bits from a source to a destination over
an interconnected system of networks. The Internet protocol can capitalize on the services of
its supporting networks to provide various types and qualities of service .
IP usually works in combination with the TCP, which establishes a virtual connection between
a source and a destination or with UDP. As an analogy, UDP can be thought of as sending a
postcard via the postal system. It permits a user to address a packet and drop it in the
system/network whereby the user does not have direct contact with the receiver of the message
packet. TCP/IP, on the other hand, is more like a bidirectional phone call, where a connection
is established the connection between the two hosts so that the two hosts can communicate
between themselves for some time with each party acknowledging what the other party is
sending [11].
The two versions of Internet Protocol in use are IPv4 and IPv6. IPv6 was designed when it
became apparent that the number of allocated IPv4 addresses would eventually run out.
Protocol developers IPv6 as a replacement IPv4 and added many more added security features
beyond solely adding exponentially more addresses than IPv4. IPv4 and IPv6 are not
interpolatable and IPv6 will not be immediately replicable by IPv6. While many transition
mechanisms exist, host based solution where end hosts are simultaneously configured with
both IPv4 and IPv6 is the preferred configuration. This “dual stack solution” allows for a
5

single change on each host and provider shortcomings in terms of transit can be addressed
separately on upstream devices.
2.2.2 Internet Protocol version 4
2.2.2.1 Introduction
IPv4 is the one of the core connectionless protocols of standards-based inter networking
methods of Packet Switched Network which operates on a best effort delivery model i.e it
does not guarantee delivery nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate
delivery. IPV4 uses 32-bit address scheme which limits the address space to 232
addresses
represented by integer value written in the dot-decimal notation consisting of four octets
expressed individually in decimal numbers and separated by periods. That means that each
device including cell phones, office phones, game consoles and computers each need their own
IP address in order to connect and communicate over the Internet. With the ever-growing
number of devices that need to connect to the Internet, it is no surprise that the amount of
available IPv4 addresses will soon be exhausted. Already, there are more devices connected
than there are routable IPv4 addresses. This is possible through a technology known as NAT
which allows multiple machines to appear as a single routable address. This comes with the
cost of the complexity involved in supporting devices deployed behind a NAT device [12].
2.2.2.2 IPv4 Packet Header
The IP uses a Datagram service to transfer packets of data between end systems using routers.
The IPv4 packet header consists of 20 bytes of data. An option exists within the header that
allows further optional bytes to be added, but this is not normally used [13]. The full header is
shown below:
Figure – 1 : Packet Header of IPv4
The header fields are discussed below:
• Version always set to the value 4 in the current version of IP
• IP Header Length number of 32 -bit words forming the header, usually five
• Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) is 6 bit field, which reflect the Quality of
Service needs of an application to the network.
6

• Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) Field is 2 bits which indicates the transport
flow.
• Size of Datagram is in bytes, which gives the combined length of the header and the
data
• Identification is 16-bit number which together with the source address uniquely
identifies this packet and used during reassembly of fragmented datagrams.
• Flags, a sequence of three flags used to control whether routers are allowed to fragment
a packet, and to indicate the parts of a packet to the receiver.
• Fragmentation Offset is a byte count from the start of the original sent packet, set by
any router which performs IP router fragmentation.
• Time To Live is Number of hops /links which the packet may be routed over.
• Protocol is a SAP which indicates the type of transport packet being carried .
• Header Checksum is used to detect processing errors introduced into the packet inside
a router or bridge.
• Source Address indicates the IP address of the original sender of the packet.
• Destination Address indicates the IP address of the final destination of the packet.
• Options is used when the IP header length will be greater than five 32-bit words to
indicate the size of the options field/
2.2.2.3 IPv4 Addressing Scheme
IPv4 addresses may be represented in any notation expressing a 32-bit integer value. They are
most often written in the dot-decimal notation, which consists of four octets of the address
expressed individually in decimal numbers and separated by periods. The CIDR notation
standard combines the address with its routing prefix in a compact format, in which the
address is followed by a slash character (/) and the count of consecutive 1 bits in the routing
prefix (subnet mask) [14].
Figure – 2 : Quad-dotted IPv4 address representation
2.2.2.4 Classfull and Classless IPv4 Protocol
A classfull network is a network addressing architecture where the method divides the address
space for IPv4 into five address classes by address range. Classes A, B, C are networks of three
different network sizes, i.e. number of hosts for unicast addresses. Class D is for multicast.
7

The class E address range is reserved for future or experimental purposes. Classfull addressing
divides an IP address into the Network and Host portions along octet boundaries [15].
Classless addressing uses a variable number of bits for the network and host portions of the
address. Classless addressing treats the IP address as a 32 bit stream of ones and zeros, where
the boundary between network and host portions can fall anywhere between bit 0 and bit 31.
The network portion of an IP address is determined by how many 1's are in the subnet mask.
Again, this can be a variable number of bits, and although it can fall on an octet boundary, it
does not necessarily need to. A subnet mask is used locally on each host connected to a
network, and masks are never carried in IPv4 datagrams. All hosts on the same network are
configured with the same mask, and share the same pattern of network bits. The host portion
of each host's IP address will be unique. It allows us to use variable length subnet mask so also
known as VLSM. [16] [17].
VLSM enables you to have more than one mask for a given class of address, albeit a class A,
B, or C network number. VLSM, allows you to apply different subnet masks to the same class
address space Classfull protocols, such as RIPv1 and IGRP, do not support VLSM. To
deploy VLSM requires a routing protocol that is classless - BGP, EIGRP, OSPF, or RIPv2,
for instance[18].
2.2.2.5 Problem with IPv4
The problems with IPv4 are given below :
1) Scarcity of Address :
The IPv4 addressing system uses 32-bit address space. This 32-bit address space is
further classified to usable A, B, and C classes. 32-bit address space allows for
4,294,967,296 IPv4 addresses, but the previous and current IPv4 address allocation
practices limit the number of available public IPv4 addresses. Because scarcity of IPv4
addresses, many organizations implemented NAT to map multiple private IPv4
addresses to a single public IPv4 address. By using NAT we can map many internal
private IPV4 addresses to a public IPv4 address, which helped in conserving IPv4
addresses. But NAT also have many limitations.
2) Security Related issues:
IPSec is a protocol suit which enables network security by protecting the data being
sent from being viewed or modified. IPSec provides security for IPv4 packets, but
IPSec is not built-in and optional. Many IPSec implementations are proprietary.
3) Quality of Service:
QoS is available in IPv4 and it relies on the 8 bits of the IPv4 TOS field and the
identification of the payload. IPv4 TOS field has limited functionality and payload
identification (uses a TCP or UDP port) is not possible when the IPv4 datagram packet
payload is encrypted.
4) Address related configuration issue:
Networks and also Internet is expanding and many new computers and devices are
using IP. The configuration of IP addresses (static or dynamic) should be simple.
8

2.2.3 Internet Protocol version 6
2.2.3.1 Introduction
IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched inter networking and provides end-to-
end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address,
theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4X1038 addresses.It simplifies aspects of
address assignment, network renumbering, and router announcements when changing
network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the
responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points [19].
2.2.3.2 IPv6 Packet Header
The fixed header of an IPv6 packet consists of its first 40 octets (320 bits). It has the following
format [20]:
Figure – 3 : Packet Header of IPv6
The header fields are discussed below:
• Source address - The 128-bit source address field contains the IPv6 address of the
originating node of the packet.
• Destination address - The 128-bit contains the destination address of the recipient node
of the IPv6 packet.
• Version/IP version - The 4-bit version field contains the number 6. It indicates the
version of the IPv6 protocol.
• Packet priority/Traffic class - The 8-bit Priority field in the IPv6 header can assume
different values to enable the source node to differentiate between the packets
generated by it by associating different delivery priorities to them.
• Flow Label/QoS management - The 20-bit flow label field in the IPv6 header can be
used by a source to label a set of packets belonging to the same flow.
• Payload length - The 16-bit payload length field contains the length of the data field in
octets/bits following the IPv6 packet header.
9

• Next Header - The 8-bit Next Header field identifies the type of header immediately
following the IPv6 header and located at the beginning of the data field (payload) of
the IPv6 packet.
• Time To Live (TTL)/Hop Limit (8 bits) - The 8-bit Hop Limit field is decremented by
one, by each node (typically a router) that forwards a packet.
2.2.3.3 IPv6 Addressing Format and Scheme
An IPv6 address is represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group
representing 16 bits (two octets, a group sometimes also called a hextet). The groups are
separated by colons (:). An example of an IPv6 address is:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
The hexadecimal digits are case-insensitive, but IETF recommendations suggest the use of
lower case letters. The full representation of eight 4-digit groups may be simplified by several
techniques, eliminating parts of the representation [21] [22]. Leading zeros in a group may be
omitted, but each group must retain at least one hexadecimal digit. Thus, the example address
may be written as [23]:
2001:db8:85a3:0:0:8a2e:370:7334
One or more consecutive groups of zero value may be replaced with a single empty group
using two consecutive colons (::), but the substitution may only be applied once in the address,
because multiple occurrences would create an ambiguous representation. Thus, the example
address can be further simplified:
2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334
IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in
networking: unicast addressing, anycast addressing, and multicast addressing.
• A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet Protocol delivers
packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface.
• An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to different
nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member
interfaces, typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocol's definition of
distance.
• A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the multicast address
destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the network
routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that
have joined the corresponding multicast group.
2.2.3.4 The Advantages of IPv6
The benefits of the Internet are drawn directly from the platform of interoperability created by
use of the Internet Protocol, leading to a large "network effect". That is, the benefits to a
company from the Internet arise not just by the extent to which the company itself uses the
10

Internet, but far more from the extent to which others - suppliers, customers and individuals -
also use the Internet. Because IPv6 will greatly increase the size and range of devices
connected to the Internet, the benefit of the network effect will increase accordingly.
The World Wide Web and other Internet applications currently use version 4 of the Internet
Protocol - IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force to deal with a
looming shortage of addresses under IPv4. Since then, there have been numerous technical
fixes to shore up IPv4 and postpone the need for a move to IPv6, as well as debate on whether
IPv6 would even be required. That debate is now agreed to be over. The free IPv4 address
space was exhausted between 2011 and 2015. In practice, the only sensible option for those
building large new networks is to use IPv6.
Complexity has been introduced into the way that IP based-networks are already implemented
because of address space shortage. Parts of the IPv4 address space need to be reused around
the world because there are now too few addresses remaining for the size of the Internet. Some
IPv4 address space has been reserved for private (not globally routable) IPv4 addresses, to
help overcome these problems. These allocations have been used with network address
translation to enable networks to connect to the Internet using only one globally routable
IPv4 address. For example, in India, up to three levels of Network Address Translation have
been observed.
IPv6 offers the potential to build a much more powerful Internet, with vastly larger scale
compared to the current situation. Addresses in IPv4 have only 32 bits, allowing for only
about 4 billion addresses, compared to 128-bit IPv6, with some 340 trillion, trillion, trillion
addresses.
As well as increasing the address space, the IETF took the opportunity to build additional
features into the IPv6 specification. IPv6 has a new feature called auto configuration. This
feature allows a device to generate an IPv6 address as soon as it is given power. Using this
'link local' address, there is no immediate need for any other infrastructure to allow that device
to begin communicating via IPv6 on its local network, including communications with
another local host or router. If an IPv6 router is present, any IPv6-capable device can generate
not only a local address, but a globally routable address, allowing access to the wider Internet.
Provision of sufficient address space will also allow re-establishment of an end-to-end
architecture in the Internet. The shortage of IPv4 addresses has caused widespread use of
private address spaces, which are not directly accessible from the Internet. Devices with IPv6
addresses and IPv6 connectivity can be directly reachable by their address. Such an approach
gives rise to the potential to move beyond an "Internet of desktops" to an "Internet of Things"
where device to device communication becomes possible. A range of other capabilities were
included during the IPv6 development process, for instance mandatory support for security
via IPsec.
While some of the new features possible in IPv6 based networks are currently possible in IPv4
based networks, the critical exception is that they do not support the scale that IPv6 does,
making it difficult or impossible to use them to meet current and future business requirements.
The network applications being considered as a basis for new growth in industry productivity
require a vastly higher scale of implementation than IPv4 can deliver; thousands or millions of
devices and/or addresses.
Manual intervention is the other critical element to be considered in the context of
implementing large scale networks. If manual set-up is required for every device with an IP
11

address, significant costs will be incurred. In IPv4 based networks, this requirement has been
alleviated by the use of server based configuration of devices using DHCP which is able to
automatically allocate IP addresses to new devices on the network with the parameters set by
the network administrator. However, for this approach to work, each new device must
interact with a DHCP server, which in the case of large-scale networks is resource- and time-
intensive. In contrast, IPv6 address allocation is done by the device itself and can occur
independently of a server, or in conjunction with an IPv6 enabled router, as appropriate.
While many Internet based applications will continue to operate under IPv4, the challenges of
network administration and security management continue to grow. For instance, if two
companies merge and want to merge their IP based networks then there will have to be
renumbering. On the Internet, if the source of malevolent activity needs to be identified, the
closest identification by IP address possible under an IPv4 NAT architecture is the globally
routable IPv4 address of the top level NAT server [24].
2.2.4 Routing Protocols
A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other, disseminating
information that enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network.
Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route. Each router has a priori knowledge
only of networks attached to it directly. A routing protocol shares this information first
among immediate neighbors, and then throughout the network. This way, routers gain
knowledge of the topology of the network [25].
Although there are many types of routing protocols, three major classes are in widespread use
on IP networks:
• Interior gateway protocols type 1, link-state routing protocols, such as OSPF
• Interior gateway protocols type 2, distance-vector routing protocols, such as Routing
Information Protocol, RIPv2.
• Exterior gateway protocols are routing protocols used on the Internet for exchanging
routing information between Autonomous Systems, such as Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP), Path Vector Routing Protocol.
Exterior gateway protocols should not be confused with Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), an
obsolete routing protocol.
2.2.4.1 Autonomous System
Autonomous system (AS) is a collection of connected IP routing prefixes under the control of
one or more network operators on behalf of a single administrative entity or domain that
presents a common, clearly defined routing policy to the Internet [26].
Autonomous systems can be grouped into four categories, depending on their connectivity
and operating policy.
• A multi homed autonomous system is an AS that maintains connections to more than
one other AS. This allows the AS to remain connected to the Internet in the event of a
complete failure of one of their connections. However, unlike a transit AS, this type of
AS would not allow traffic from one AS to pass through on its way to another AS.
12

• A stub autonomous system refers to an AS that is connected to only one other AS. This
may be an apparent waste of an AS number if the network's routing policy is the same
as its upstream AS's. However, the stub AS may, in fact, have peering with other
autonomous systems that is not reflected in public route-view servers. Specific
examples include private interconnections in the financial and transportation sectors.
• A transit autonomous system is an AS that provides connections through itself to other
networks. That is, network A can use network B, the transit AS, to connect to network
C. If one AS is an ISP for another, then the former is a transit AS.
• An Internet Exchange Point autonomous system (IX or IXP) is a physical
infrastructure through which Internet service providers (ISPs) or content delivery
networks (CDNs) exchange Internet traffic between their networks.
2.2.4.2 Interior Routing Protocol
An IGP is a type of protocol used for exchanging routing information between gateways
(commonly routers) within an autonomous system (for example, a system of corporate local
area networks). This routing information can then be used to route network-layer protocols
like IP [27].
2.2.4.2.1 Distance Vector Routing Protocol
Distance-vector routing protocols use the Bellman–Ford algorithm. In these protocols, each
router does not possess information about the full network topology. It advertises its distance
value (DV) calculated to other routers and receives similar advertisements from other routers
unless changes are done in local network or by neighbors (routers). Using these routing
advertisements each router populates its routing table. In the next advertisement cycle, a
router advertises updated information from its routing table. This process continues until the
routing tables of each router converge to stable values [28].
Some of these protocols have the disadvantage of slow convergence.
Examples of distance-vector routing protocols:
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• Routing Information Protocol Version 2 (RIPv2)
• Routing Information Protocol Next Generation (RIPng), an extension of RIP version 2
with support for IPv6
• Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
2.2.4.2.2 Link State Routing Protocol
In link-state routing protocols, each router possesses information about the complete network
topology. Each router then independently calculates the best next hop from it for every
possible destination in the network using local information of the topology. The collection of
best-next-hops forms the routing table.
13

This contrasts with distance-vector routing protocols, which work by having each node share
its routing table with its neighbors. In a link-state protocol, the only information passed
between the nodes is information used to construct the connectivity maps [29].
Examples of link-state routing protocols:
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Intermediate system to intermediate system (IS-IS)
2.2.4.2.3 Hybrid Routing Protocol
Hybrid routing protocols have both the features of distance vector routing protocols and
linked state routing protocols. One example is EIGRP.
2.2.4.3 Exterior Routing Protocol
An Exterior Gateway Protocol is a routing protocol used to exchange routing information
between autonomous systems. This exchange is crucial for communications across the
Internet. Notable exterior gateway protocols include Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), now
obsolete, and Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) [30].
2.2.5 Open Short Path First
OSPF is an IGP that follows LSR Algorithm for routing IP packets solely with in a single
routing domain i.e. an Autonomous system. It gathers link state information from available
routers and constructs a topology map of the network. OSPF is based on Dijkstra Algorithm
for finding shortest path and supports IPv4 and IPv6 networks and supports the CIDR
addressing model [31].
OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, and converges on a new loop-free
routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest-path tree for each route using a
method based on Dijkstra's algorithm. The OSPF routing policies for constructing a route
table are governed by link metrics associated with each routing interface. Cost factors may be
the distance of a router (round-trip time), data throughput of a link, or link availability and
reliability, expressed as simple unitless numbers. This provides a dynamic process of traffic
load balancing between routes of equal cost. An OSPF network may be structured, or
subdivided, into routing areas to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource
utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often
in the same octet-based dot-decimal notation used for IPv4 addresses. By convention, area 0
(zero), or 0.0.0.0, represents the core or backbone area of an OSPF network. [32].
OSPF does not use a transport protocol, such as UDP or TCP, but encapsulates its data
directly in IP packets with protocol number 89. This is in contrast to other routing protocols,
such as the RIP and the BGP. OSPF implements its own transport layer error detection and
correction functions. OSPF uses multicast addressing for distributing route information
within a broadcast domain [33].
14

2.2.5.1 OSPF Interfaces
Another important idea in OSPF is that interfaces used to exchange information with OSPF
neighbors have different types. There are too many types to discuss here but you should be
aware of two important ones .
1. An OSPF broadcast interface is connected to a shared network, like Ethernet.
2. An OSPF point-to-point interface is connected to a link where there can only be a
single OSPF router on either end, such as a WAN link or a purpose-built Ethernet link.
The reason for the various interface types is to make sure that all routers know about all
routes from all other routers.
On point-to-point links, there’s no mystery — the two routers know they’re the only OSPF
routers on the link and so they exchange routes with each other.
On broadcast links, there’s a potential for many different OSPF routers to be on the network
segment. To minimize the number of neighbor relationships that form on broadcast links,
OSPF elects a designated router (as well as a backup) whose job it is to neighbor with all other
OSPF routers on the segment and share everyone’s routes with everyone else. [34]
2.2.5.2 OSPF Areas
Areas in OSPF are collections of routers grouped together. With the exception of area border
routers, OSPF routers in one area don’t neighbor with routers in other areas. Among other
reasons, areas were once used to scale large OSPF networks.
Back when router CPUs were less powerful than they are today, a general rule of thumb was
to keep an OSPF area to no more than 50 routers. That would keep the number of OSPF
shortest path computations and database updates to a manageable amount as interfaces went
up and down, routes were learned and withdrawn, and so on.
The most important area in OSPF is the backbone area, also known as area 0. The backbone
area is the area that all OSPF areas must traverse to get to other OSPF areas.
While OSPF routers within an area know everything there is to know about the network
topology, topology information is hidden at area borders [35].
Figure – 4 : Area System of OSPF
15

2.2.5.3 OSPFv3 vs OSPFv2
The difference between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 are [36]:
1) Link-local addresses: OSPFv3 packets are sourced from link-local IPv6 addresses.
2) Links, not networks: OSPFv3 uses the terminology links where we use networks in
OSPFv2.
3) New LSA types: there are two new LSA types, and LSA type 1 and 2 have changed.
4) Interface commands: OSPFv3 uses interface commands to enable it on the interface,
we don’t use the network command anymore as OSPFv2 does.
5) OSPFv3 router ID: OSPFv3 is unable to set its own router ID like OSPFv2 does.
Instead, you have to manually configure the router ID. It is configured as a 32-bit
value, same as in OSPFv2.
6) Multiple prefixes per interface: if you have multiple IPv6 prefixes on an interface
then OSPFv3 will advertise all of them.
7) Flooding scope: OSPFv3 has a flooding scope for different LSAs.
8) Multiple instances per link: You can run multiple OSPFv3 instances on a single link.
9) Authentication: OSPFv3 doesn’t use plain text or MD5 authentication as OSPFv2
does. Instead, it uses IPv6’s IPSec authentication.
10) Prefixes in LSAs: OSPFv2 shows networks in LSAs as network + subnet mask,
OSPFv3 shows prefixes as prefix + prefix length.
2.2.5.4 OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Header Comparison
Figure – 5 : OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Header Comparison
2.2.5.5 Hello Packet Comparison
Figure -6 : OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Hello Packet Comparison
16

2.2.6 Internet Control Message Protocol
The ICMP is a supporting protocol in the Internet protocol suite. It is used by network
devices, including routers, to send error messages and operational information indicating, for
example, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.
ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is not typically used to
exchange data between systems, nor is it regularly employed by end-user network applications.
ICMP uses the basic support of IP as if it were a higher level protocol, however, ICMP is
actually an integral part of IP. Although ICMP messages are contained within standard IP
packets, ICMP messages are usually processed as a special case, distinguished from normal IP
processing. In many cases, it is necessary to inspect the contents of the ICMP message and
deliver the appropriate error message to the application responsible for transmission of the IP
packet that prompted the sending of the ICMP message [37].
2.2.6.1 ICMPv4
ICMPv4 is the implementation of the ICMP for IPv4. ICMPv4 is an integral part of IPv4 and
performs error reporting and diagnostic functions, and has a framework for extensions to
implement future changes. ICMP is not a transport protocol that sends data between systems.
While ICMP is not used regularly in end-user applications, it is used by network
administrators to troubleshoot Internet connections [38].
Figure – 7 : Header of ICMPv4
2.2.6.2 ICMPv6
ICMPv6 is the implementation of the ICMP for IPv6. ICMPv6 is an integral part of IPv6 and
performs error reporting and diagnostic functions, and has a framework for extensions to
implement future changes [39].
Several extensions have been published, defining new ICMPv6 message types as well as new
options for existing ICMPv6 message types. NDP is a node discovery protocol in IPv6 which
replaces and enhances functions of ARP. SEND is an extension of NDP with extra security.
MLD is used by IPv6 routers for discovering multicast listeners on a directly attached link,
much like IGMP is used in IPv4. MRD allows discovery of multicast routers [40].
8 bit type 8 bit code 16 bit checksum
17

32 bit Message body
Figure – 8 : Header of ICMPv6
2.2.7 Quality of Service
QoS is the description or measurement of the overall performance of a service, such as a
telephony or computer network or a Cloud computing service, particularly the performance
seen by the users of the network. To quantitatively measure quality of service, several related
aspects of the network service are often considered, such as error rates, bit rate, throughput,
transmission delay, availability, jitter, etc. Not only is QoS necessary for voice and video
streaming over the network, it's also an important factor in supporting the growing IoT. The
goal of QoS is to provide preferential delivery service for the applications that need it by
ensuring sufficient bandwidth, controlling latency and jitter, and reducing data loss [41].
Fundamentally, QoS enables you to provide better service to certain flows. This is done by
either raising the priority of a flow or limiting the priority of another flow. When using
congestion-management tools, you try to raise the priority of a flow by queuing and servicing
queues in different ways. The queue management tool used for congestion avoidance raises
priority by dropping lower-priority flows before higher-priority flows. Policing and shaping
provide priority to a flow by limiting the throughput of other flows. Link efficiency tools limit
large flows to show a preference for small flows. QoS tools can help alleviate most congestion
problems. However, many times there is just too much traffic for the bandwidth supplied. In
such cases, QoS is merely a bandage. [42].
2.2.7.1 QOS Basic Architecture
The basic architecture introduces the three fundamental pieces for QoS implementation [43]:
• QoS identification and marking techniques for coordinating QoS from end to end
between network elements
• QoS within a single network element (for example, queuing, scheduling, and traffic-
shaping tools)
• QoS policy, management, and accounting functions to control and administer end-to-
end traffic across a network
18

Figure – 9 : Basic Architecture of QoS
2.2.7.2 Qualities of QOS
In packet-switched networks, quality of service is affected by various factors, which can be
divided into “human” and “technical” factors. Human factors include: stability of service,
availability of service, delays, user information. Technical factors include: reliability,
scalability, effectiveness, maintainability, grade of service, etc.
Many things can happen to packets as they travel from origin to destination, resulting in the
following problems as seen from the point of view of the sender and receiver [44]:
1. Low throughput
Due to varying load from disparate users sharing the same network resources, the bit
rate (the maximum throughput) that can be provided to a certain data stream may be
too low for real time multimedia services if all data streams get the same scheduling
priority.
2. Dropped packets
The routers might fail to deliver (drop) some packets if their data loads are corrupted,
or the packets arrive when the router buffers are already full. The receiving application
may ask for this information to be retransmitted, possibly causing severe delays in the
overall transmission.
3. Errors
Sometimes packets are corrupted due to bit errors caused by noise and interference,
especially in wireless communications and long copper wires. The receiver has to detect
this and, just as if the packet was dropped, may ask for this information to be
retransmitted.
4. Latency
It might take a long time for each packet to reach its destination, because it gets held
up in long queues, or it takes a less direct route to avoid congestion. This is different
from throughput, as the delay can build up over time, even if the throughput is almost
normal. In some cases, excessive latency can render an application such as VoIP or
online gaming unusable.
5. Jitter
Packets from the source will reach the destination with different delays. A packet's
delay varies with its position in the queues of the routers along the path between source
and destination and this position can vary unpredictably. This variation in delay is
known as jitter and can seriously affect the quality of streaming audio and/or video.
6. Out-of-order delivery
When a collection of related packets is routed through a network, different packets
may take different routes, each resulting in a different delay. The result is that the
packets arrive in a different order than they were sent. This problem requires special
additional protocols responsible for rearranging out-of-order packets to an
isochronous state once they reach their destination. This is especially important for
19

video and VoIP streams where quality is dramatically affected by both latency and lack
of sequence.
2.2.8 Latency
Latency is the delay from input into a system to desired outcome; the term is understood
slightly differently in various contexts and latency issues also vary from one system to another.
Latency greatly affects how usable and enjoyable electronic and mechanical devices as well as
communications are. Latency in communication is demonstrated in live transmissions from
various points on the earth as the communication hops between a ground transmitter and a
satellite and from a satellite to a receiver each take time. People connecting from distances to
these live events can be seen to have to wait for responses. This latency is the wait time
introduced by the signal traveling the geographical distance as well as over the various pieces
of communications equipment [45].
2.2.8.1 Types of latency
Network latency is an expression of how much time it takes for a packet of data to get from
one designated point to another. In some environments (for example, AT&T), latency is
measured by sending a packet that is returned to the sender; the round-trip time is considered
the latency. Ideally, latency is as close to zero as possible.
1) Internet latency is just a special case of network latency - the Internet is a very large
WAN. The same factors as above determine latency on the Internet. Internet latency
measurement would generally start at the exit of a network and end on the return of the
requested data from an Internet resource.
2) Interrupt latency is the length of time that it takes for a computer to act on an
interrupt, which is a signal telling the operating system to stop until it can decide what
it should do in response to some event.
3) WAN latency itself can be an important factor in determining Internet latency. A
WAN that is busy directing other traffic will produce a delay whether a resource is
being requested from a server on the LAN, another computer on that network or
elsewhere on the Internet. LAN users will also experience delay when the WAN is busy.
4) Audio latency is the delay between sound being created and heard. In sound created
in the physical world, this delay is determined by the speed of sound, which varies
slightly depending on the medium the sound wave travels through.
5) Computer and operating system latency is the combined delay between an input or
command and the desired output. In a computer system, latency is often used to mean
any delay or waiting that increases real or perceived response time beyond what is
desired. Specific contributors to computer latency include mismatches in data speed
between the microprocessor and input/output devices, inadequate data buffers and the
performance of the hardware involved, as well as its drivers. The processing load of the
computer can also add significant latency.
Latency issues are noticeable for an individual, generally increasing user annoyance and
impacting productivity as the level increases above 30ms. The severity of the effect varies from
20

one application to another, as do mitigating tactics. However, games can often be enjoyable
up to around 90ms latency. In communications, delays can be a result of heavy traffic,
hardware problems, incorrect set up and/or configuration.
2.2.8.2 Latency testing
Latency testing can vary from application to application. In some applications, measuring
latency requires special and complex equipment or knowledge of special computer commands
and programs; in other cases, latency can be measured with a stop watch. In networking, an
estimated latency to equipment or servers can be determined by running a ping command;
information about latency through all the hops can be gathered with a trace route command.
High-speed cameras might be used to capture the minute differences in response times for
input to various mechanical and electronic systems.
2.2.8.3 Reducing latency
Reducing latency is a function of tuning, tweaking and upgrading both computer hardware
and software and mechanical systems. Within a computer, latency can be removed or hidden
by such techniques as prefetching and multithreading or by using parallelism across multiple
execution threads. Other steps to reduce latency and increase performance include uninstalling
unnecessary programs, optimizing networking and software configurations and upgrading or
over clocking hardware.
2.2.9 Network Latency
Network Latency a.k.a Packet delay is the difference in end-to-end one-way delay between
selected packets in a flow with any lost packets being ignored.
2.2.9.1 Types of Packet Delays
Two types of delay are commonly measured:
1. One-Way Packet Delay
One way packet delay is the time for the each packets taken to reach destination. In
this type of delay we basically calculate instantaneous packet delay which means the
time difference between each packet in the destination known as jitter. This is referred
as the time for a packet to be received at a destination since it was sent from a source.
Total delay can be separated into the following components: the time it takes for the
source to send it, the time it takes the packet to travel along the physical links that
make up the end-to-end path, the time it takes to pass through routers between those
links and the time required for the server to process an incoming packet.
2. Round-Trip Packet delay
The time for a packet to make the round trip from a source (possibly a client) to a
destination (possibly a server) and back, also referred to as round-trip time. RTT can
be separated into several components: forward delay, server delay and reverse delay.
Forward delay is defined as the time loss done by the router or switch during
21

forwarding. It is basically happen due to priority scheme of the network. In our
concept, Forwarding Delay can be seen in IPv6 packets because priority is given to
only IPv4 packets.
2.2.9.2 Types of Delays in Packet Switch Networks
There are four major types of delays on each node of a packet-switched network:
a) Processing Delay
When a packet reaches a router, the router reads the header, locates its final
destination, and decides which outbound link to send it on. It also may do some
transmission error checking. These account for the processing delay.
b) Queuing Delay
Most routers utilize a first-come-first-serve queue for packet traffic. If traffic on the
router is busy, then the packet will have to wait in a queue for its turn to be transmitted
by the router. This accounts for the queuing delay.
c) Transmission Delay
The amount of time it takes a router to push out the next packet on to the link is the
transmission delay. This delay is a function of the size of the packet and the
transmission rate of the link.
d) Propagation Delay
The amount of time it takes to propagate the packet from the beginning of the link to
the next link is the propagation delay. It is a function of the length of the link and the
speed of the link.
2.2.9.3 Cause of Packet Delays
There are two main reasons why delays occur :
1. Network connections – If there are a high number of users connected, or there is a
high volume of bandwidth being used while you are also trying to use a VoIP
connection, you will likely see a drop in call quality. Be aware that peak usage times
e.g., working hours for businesses, may result in some delays.
2. End systems – Sometimes, it is the end system – the system where the data packets are
reassembled into data – that creates the delay. The cause of this is usually older
equipment that lacks the computing power to handle fast connections and large data
transfers.
2.2.9.4 Ways to reduce Reduce Packet Delays
Following are the some of the reasons using which we can reduce Packet delays [46]:
a) Content Delivery Network
22

The most important factor that gives rise to Internet latency is distance. The speed of
communications over the Internet is limited. And as such the greater the distance
between a website or application server and the end user the longer it will take to load
that particular website or application. A good way to overcome distance related
network latency is to use a CDN. CDNs have a network of geographically distributed
edge locations in close proximity to end users.
b) Prioritizing the packets
Generally, we must have to find the type of packets that we will be using and must have
to prioritize the networks packets according to it. For example if we are using IPv6
networks, then we must prioritize the routers to process IPv6 packets at first rather
than processing IPv4 packets and same for vice versa.
c) Anycast
Building an anycast architecture can also help to decrease latency. There are two
aspects of anycast that are important to the discussion about reducing latency: Anycast
DNS and BGP anycast. Anycast DNS allows DNS queries to be routed to the
topologically nearest DNS server, resulting in reduced network latency and quicker
DNS query responses. Once your query has been resolved into a unique IP address.
Anycast BGP takes over and routes your request to the topologically nearest web
server. Anycast BGP again has the advantage of reducing the distance that requests
have to travel leading to lower latency.
d) Network Monotoning
Monitoring your network to identify potential network bottlenecks can be helpful in
reducing Internet latency. Tools like the network latency test can be used to test
networt latency to different IP prefixes. Network monitoring is a good strategy to get
in front of potential network problems. However, network monitoring can only take
you so far. Once a network problem like high latency has been identified, network
engineers have to go ahead and make manual changes to network topology. Network
monitoring can also end up being reactive in nature.
2.2.10 Dual Stack
Dual-stack is one of the most widely adopted techniques for IPv6 migration. It helps to
establish communication between your IPv6 network and the native IPv4 hosts and
applications [47]. A dual-stack node has support for both protocol versions and is referred to
as an IPv6/IPv4 node. IPv6/IPv4 nodes have three modes of operation:
• IPv4 only - IPv4 stack enabled and IPv6 stack disabled
• IPv6 only - IPv6 stack enabled and IPv4 stack disabled
• Both IPv4 and IPv6 stacks enabled
23

2.2.10.1 Dual Stack Transition Mechanism
DSTM is a transition mechanism based on the usage of IPv4-over-IPv6 tunnels to facilitate
interoperability between newly deployed IPv6 networks and existing IPv4 networks [48].
Significant Advantages:
• Transparent to the network and to the application
• Legacy IPv4 applications can be run over IPv6-only networks without modification
• IPv4 addresses are dynamically allocated as needed and then reclaimed
• Based on standard protocols
2.3 Review of Conceptual Prospective of the study
In this section we cover the parameters that affects the performance of the network, among
those some are :
• Packet Delay
• Packet Header
• Routing Protocol
• Dual Stack Mode
Brief Description of those parameters are:
1) Packet Delay:
Packet delay PDV is the difference in end-to-end one-way delay between selected
packets in a flow with any lost packets being ignored.
2) Packet Header
An IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. The data section is the size
of data that is desired to be transfer from one host to another where the packet header
is always remained attached with the in either of the two protocols, IPv4 and IPv6. The
header structure of IPv4 remains same and only the size and the padding value differs
according to the header length. The header length is the four bit binary the starts from
decimal 5 to 15 that makes the variation on the header size ranges from minimum 20
bytes to 60 bytes. The header structure of IPv6 have some changes with respect to some
fields values. The size of the IPv6 header always remains same as the the header length
is always equal to 40 bytes.
Thus, the performance of IPv6 only differs due to the amount of data sent over the
network whereas the performance of IPv4 can get variation due to its changing header
size.
3) Routing Protocol
A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other, distributing
information that enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer
network. Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route. Each router has a
priori knowledge only of networks attached to it directly. A routing protocol shares
this information first among immediate neighbors, and then throughout the network.
This way, routers gain knowledge of the topology of the network. There are various
routing protocols that can be used according to the required environment. Among
which we here will use the OSPF and OSPFv3 routing Protocol which is Dynamic
24

Routing Protocol. There are other various routing Protocols that can be used and
which can differ the performance of overall network.
4) Dual Stack Mode
Dual Stack mode is the transition mechanism that enables both IPv4 and IPv6 to be
configured in a same interface from where the communication between IPv4 and IPv6
is possible. This is because the hosts with different IP can get communicate between
each other using this transition mechanism. However the problem with Dual Stack is
that it gives more priority to IPv4 packets rather than the IPv6 packets which as a
result makes the variation in the transferring of packets.
2.4 Related Literature Review
As we were researching in the domain of our project we got to read different related works
and documents which somehow relates to our domain and we too developed our ideas on the
basis of these researched documents. Here are number of studies related to IPv4 and IPv6
transition mechanisms have been studied in the past. This section covers review of studies
relating to the performance evaluation of various transition mechanisms, which will be using
as part of secondary resources in data gathering. The following are the five studies:
1) Study – 1 : IPv4 vs. IPv6 on various Operating Systems using Jumbo Frames
First of all we review the research document on “Performance Analysis of IPv4 vs.
IPv6 on various Operating Systems using Jumbo Frames” [49]. The purpose of this
study is to evaluate the performance of Jumbo frames on a network environment
employing six operating systems from two different distributions. These operating
systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2008, Microsoft Windows Server 2003 and
Microsoft Windows 7 Professional and from the Linux distributions, Linux Fedora,
Ubuntu and OpenSUSE. In this study, two transmission protocols were employed
namely, TCP and the UDP. Two Internet protocols were also engaged in these
performance experiments,IPv6 and IPv4. There were five main performance metrics
extracted from the data collected in this experimental study namely the throughput,
delay, jitter, the CPU utilizations on the software routers and the packets dropped rate.
The Jumbo frame sizes involved ranging from 1518 Bytes to 9014 Bytes.
The findings of this study concluded that for traffic employing TCP as transport
protocol, Microsoft Windows Server 2008 and Microsoft Windows 7 yielded the
highest throughput on both IPv6 and IPv4 and also Linux OpenSUSE on IPv4 only.
When UDP was employed as transmission protocol, all of the operating systems
yielded similar throughput values. This project developed us the idea that using a
jumbo frames on Microsoft Products will provide highest throughput, jitter and lower
delay compared linux products where as the concept of jumbo frames were out of our
research domain.
2) Study – 2 : IPv4 and IPv6 transition mechanisms on various operating systems
As we were moving ahead we landed on the research document of “Performance
evaluation of IP version 4 and IP version 6 transition mechanisms on various operating
systems” [50]. The purpose of this research is to evaluate performance of two tunneling
mechanisms (Configured Tunnel and 6to4 tunneling mechanisms) operate on four
25

selected operating systems (Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008, Ubuntu 9.10,
and Fedora Core 11). This performance measurement research examined on two types
of transmission protocols namely UDP and TCP. The result of this research focused on
four metrics such as throughput, delay, jitter, and CPU utilization. The experiments
conducted using different payload sizes, ranging from 64 bytes to 1536 bytes.
Results of this experimental research indicated that, Configured Tunnel and 6to4
perform differently on Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008, Ubuntu 9.10, and
Fedora 11. By using TCP as transport protocol, Configured Tunnel on Fedora 11
produced the highest throughput. However, it also produced a very high delay as
compared to Ubuntu 9.10, Windows Server 2003, and Windows Server 2008.On the
other hand, after measuring UDP traffic, the results indicated that 6to4 on Ubuntu
9.10 produced the highest throughput with the lowest delay, which designate as the best
choice for video and voice traffics.
But again from this research we gain the concept of different packet sizes that can be
used in the networks where as the concept of tunneling mechanism were way out of our
research domain.
3) Study – 3 : IPv6 vs. IPv4 under a Dual-Stack Environment
In this paper done by Uk-Nam Law, Man-Chiu Lai, Wee Lum Tan and Wing Cheong
Lau(), they present comprehensive empirical measurements of the IPv6 network
performance from an end-users perspective [51]. First of all they particularly have
chooses about 2000 dual stack host worldwide and send the probing traffic to each of
the host which acts as the test bed for their research domain. They quantify the
performance differences of using IPv6 vs. IPv4, in terms of various network metrics like
network connectivity, hop count, RTT, throughput, operating systems dependencies as
well as the address configuration latency. They have also investigated the performance
impact of using IPv6 tunneling brokers instead of native IPv6 services. Whenever
possible, They also compare their measurement results with previously published ones
to reflect on the progress of IPv6 deployment/performance improvements in the past
few years. They have designed and implemented an active measurement methodology
to evaluate the performance of IPv6 against IPv4 from an end-user’s perspective. Our
measurements are conducted between our dual-stack testbed and 2,014 other dual-
stack sites in the world. They used both ICMP and TCP traffic to measure the IPv6
network performance. In addition to that, they have also evaluated the latency
performance of IPv6 address provisioning mechanisms. Finally, they have also
investigated the performance of tunneled-IPv6 connections through the services of 3
tunnel brokers; AARNet, Euro6IX and FreeNet6.
In general, Their measurement results indicate that the IPv6 network is able to provide
stable network connectivity for IPv6 end-hosts. Due to the relatively light traffic load
and abundant bandwidth in the IPv6 backbone, the IPv6 throughput is easily superior
to that of IPv4. They have also seen that the tunneled-IPv6 services can achieve
performance similar to that of native-IPv6 services. On the other hand, there is still
considerable room for improvement in terms of reducing the IPv6 path RTT through
the deployment of more IPv6 nodes in the backbone in order to increase the link
connectivity of the IPv6 networks around the world. Furthermore, Their results also
26

show the need for an improvement in the IPv6 performance of Windows-based clients,
as compared to Unix-based clients. This is necessary in order to reduce the dependence
of the IPv6 performance on the type of operating systems used by the IPv6 end-hosts.
4) Study – 4 : IPv4 and IPv6 Routing Protocols on Wired, Wireless and Hybrid
Networks
A research on “Performance Evaluation of IPv4 and IPv6 Routing Protocols on Wired,
Wireless and Hybrid Networks” [52] where they basically used a sample network of an
network configured by both Ipv4 and IPv6 in different routing protocols such as RIP &
OSPF. Here they primarily developed three type of scenario wired, wireless and Hybrid
scenario. Each of the scenario is divided into three networks and each networks are
connected to routers. For storing the packets, a router uses the buffer and the size of
the buffer is set to 150000.The switch is used as layer 2 device. If a node on one
network wants to communicate with a node on another network, the packet is first sent
to layer 2 device. It first checks into the same network and then forwards to the router.
The router searches its routing table and sends the packets to the correct destination.
In our wireless scenario, every node in the network act as a router for forwarding the
packets. If a node is within the transmission range, node directly sends the packets,
but if it is out of the transmission range, node relies on the intermediate node for
forwarding the packets. The omni-directional antenna model is used due to the fact
that it works in all directions. Their radiation cone is 360 degrees in all directions.
Simulation is carried out in 50 nodes using CBR as traffic. A number of packets sent
by each node are 7500 with the size of 512 bytes.
In mixed scenario consists of a wireless and a wired domain. The simulation was
performed with 30 wireless nodes and 20 wired nodes. For our hybrid network
environment, they have an access point located at the center of the simulation area.
Every communication between wired and wireless nodes goes through the access
point. The station association type is dynamic. The access point is connected to the hub
(layer 2 device). If a node on wired network wants to send the packet to the wireless
node, the packet is first sent to the access point. With the use of ad hoc routing
protocol, the access point sends the packet to its correct destination. Similarly, the
packets from wireless nodes send the packets towards their assigned access points and
then the access point sends it to the wired domain.
They have evaluated the performance of different routing protocols for IPv4 and IPv6
over wired, wireless and the hybrid network. Some reasons for packet loss that they
observed that the size of the buffer, radio range, router load. From the results it has
been observed that out of all protocols the performance of AODV (IPv4) is best. It has
the maximum throughput and packet delivery ratio with minimum delay and jitter.
The paper compares different routing protocols in terms of throughput, jitter, end-to-
end delay and PDR which helps in designing the new protocol that can perform better.
In the future, they want to extend our work to test routing protocols with different
packet sizes and used the header compression technique to reduce the size of Ipv6
header for better performance
27

5) Study – 5 : Different Routing Protocols in IPv4 and IPv6 Networks on the basis
of Packet Sizes
A research alike similar to our project entitled “Performance Evaluation of Different
Routing Protocols in IPv4 and IPv6 Networks on the basis of Packet Sizes” [53] where
the performance is evaluated for different routing protocols like RIP, RIPng, OSPFv2
and OSPFv3 for IPv4 and IPv6 networks over Mobile Adhoc Networks. Simulations
are carried out on Exata Cyber 1.1 Simulator. The performance of networks is
measured on the basis of following parameters: throughput, end-to-end delay, jitter
and packet delivery ratio with varying packet sizes of 256, 512, 1024 and 2058 bytes.
Thus they use the Simulator named as Exata Cyber 1.1 where there are 100 of nodes in
the network and the traffic rate is of 1 packet per seconds and the simulation is done
for 100 seconds in wireless channel.
From the results it has been observed that as the packet sizes increases the overall
performance of the network increases. Due to small size of packet the number of
packets increased on the source node whereas as the of packet increases the number of
packets decreased and the control overheads also decreases. Out of the four protocols
the performance of RIPng is best among all the protocols. It is having the maximum
throughput and packet delivery ratio with minimum delay and jitter. OSPF for IPv4
networks is not performing well in this case. In future they will evaluate all these
protocols on wired and infrastructure based networks as well as also want to test BGP
protocol over such networks.
2.6 Development of Conceptual Framework of the study
So as we review through our related works mentioned above we assumed that the
Performance of Ipv6 networks is obviously better than IPv4 network using any types of
routing protocols in any operating system. This research we too tends to test and verify the
same condition which we have assumed. Since in the review of our related works the
performance analysis is done on the basis of throughput, delays, jitter, bandwidth and so on
and different types of simulating softwares are used too. But in our condition we tends to
analyze the performance of IPv4 and IPv6 networks on the basis of Packet Delay.
Here as we have mentioned above that there exists two types of Packet delays i.e. One-way
delay and Round trip time delay. Not only this the term gets confused with the term jitter and
latency. If we tends to find the instantaneous packet variation in one way delay then it is called
jitter where as if we only analyze the variation in times of packets to reach destination in one-
way then it is called Latency. So in our project we will be using the round trip time of the
packets i.e. the total time taken by the packets to reach to destination and came back.
First of all we will design a simple networks with IPv4 and IPv6 Protocols implied as
individually as well as in dual stack. The designed networks will be configured with OSPF
routing protocol and ICMP with used as primary form of packet. And we will be pinging the
destination and plotting the individual RTT time of each packets with versus to time(in
milliseconds) showing the fluctuation. We will vary the size of packets as 512 bytes, 1024 bytes
and 2048 bytes where the number of packets that are used will be always constant in each
condition. Not only this we too will too plot the minimum, average, maximum RTT and
Mean Deviation of the total packets and finally comparing our results and drawing out the
28

conclusion. Last but the not the least we will point out our project limitation and future
enhancements.
29

CHAPTER – 3 : METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will cover the methodology employed in this study, the data collection method
and the hypotheses that this study will answer in the conclusion of this document. Initially
when questions arise, there are different ways of finding answers. In this case, research is
conducted in order to answer the questions that triggered this study. Because research is a way
of thinking, it needs a method. Method is a logical and orderly course of action for
accomplishing the goal. Although a methodology does not define precise methods.
3.2 Hypothesis
Here are a number of aspects of network environment that toil together in order to send
packets successfully from source to destination. These will all be involved in this study such as
operating systems that currently used in a network environments, protocols used for
transporting packets from source to destination and different packet sizes that used in real
network environment on both the two Internet protocols (IPv4 & IPv6). The main hypothesis
of this study is:
“Performance of IPv6 on the basis of Packet Delay will better than IPv4 in OSPF
routing Protocol under the same condition.”
There is also another hypotheses that will be tested in this study and that is:
“IPv6 yields better performance on Single Stack Mode rather than that of on Dual
Stack Mode under the same condition.”
3.3 Research Methods for study
Quantitative method was adopted for this study of network performance measurement. This
method mainly concentrates on measurement and statistical data for the objectives that the
research focused on. Data gathered in this research is quantitative data, which collected from
the experiment conducted in the networking laboratory environment. The findings of this
research are the outcomes of the evaluation of data collected from the experiment. Basically
there are four types of quantitative studies, which include telephone survey, experiment, co-
relational study, and quantitative content analysis.
This research will only focus on experimental quantitative research; due to the primary data is
totally dependence on the experimental results. The outcome of this research is to find out the
performance differences on the basis of packet delay between IPv4 and IPv6 Networks on
OSPF routing protocols. Next section will be introducing the data collection method.
30

Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks

Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks

Empfohlen

Empfohlen

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Was ist angesagt? (19)

Ähnlich wie Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks

Ähnlich wie Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks (20)

Mehr von Kaushik Panta

Mehr von Kaushik Panta (13)

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Analysis of Packet Delay in IPv6 and IPv4 Networks