1. “VARIOUS EFFECTS OF INSECTISIDES ON
HUMAN HEALTH”
A Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Pharmacy
Submitted to
AKS UNIVERSITY
SATNA (M.P.)
PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
KARTIK SONI
Enrollment No: B19751031
Under the Supervision of
ANKUR AGRAWAL
Assistant Professor
RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY
(A Constituent Unit of AKS University)
SHERGANJ, PANNA ROAD, SATNA-(M.P.)-485001

2. RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY
(A Constituent Unit of AKS University)
SHERGANJ, PANNA ROAD, SATNA-(M.P.)-485001
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Kartik Soni
Enrollment No : B19751031 a Student of B. Pharm VIII semester (academic
session 2022-2023), has submitted his project report entitled
“VARIOUS EFFECTS OF INSECTISIDES ON HUMAN HEALTH”
in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of
Pharmacy.
HEAD OF
DEPARTMENT
(HOD)

3. RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY
(A Constituent Unit of AKS University)
SHERGANJ, PANNA ROAD, SATNA-(M.P.)-485001
FORWARDING LETTER
Mr. Kartik Soni Enrollment No: B19751031 a Student of B. Pharm VIII
semester, has completed his project report entitled
“VARIOUS EFFECTS OF INSECTISIDES ON HUMAN HEALTH”
under the supervision of (ANKUR AGRAWAL) in the partial fulfillment for the
degree of Bachelor of Pharmacy.
I recommend the project to be forwarded to the examiner for evaluation.
PRINCIPAL

4. RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY
(A Constituent Unit of AKS University)
SHERGANJ, PANNA ROAD, SATNA-(M.P.)-485001
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project titled “VARIOUS EFFECTS OF INSECTISIDES ON
HUMAN HEALTH” submitted by “KARTIK SONI”, Enrollment No: B19751031 in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF
PHARMACY is a bona fide work carried out by him under my supervision and
guidance.
Ankur Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Pharmacy
AKS University Satna

5. CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Project entitled
“VARIOUS EFFECTS OF INSECTISIDES ON HUMAN HEALTH”
Submitted by me (Kartik Soni) in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
degree of “Bachelor of Pharmacy” of AKS University is an authentic record of my
own work carried out under the guidance of Ankur Agrawal (Assistant Professor)
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Pharmacy, AKS University Satna
The matter embodied in this project has not been submitted by me for the
award
of any other degree or diploma.
Date: KARTIK SONI
Ankur Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Pharmacy
AKS University Satna

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the project guide Mr. Ankur agarwal sir
for providing all the material possible and encouraging
throughout the report. It is a great pleasure for me to
acknowledgement the assistance and contribution of head
department Dr. S.P. Gupta sir for his valuable suggestion
during development of the Project.
We also thank to our project guide Mr. Ankur agarwal sir
whose valuable help for time to time with the completion of
this project. We extent our thanks for the constant interest
and encouraging help of lecturers and other staff of
B.Pharma department to enhance the understand research
and for the successful completion of this project.
KARTIK SONI

7. INDEX
S. NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1-10
II. REGISTRATION/CENTRAL INSECTICIDES LABORATORY 10-11
III. EFFECT OF INSECTICIDES 12-17
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES & MOA 18-24
V. USE OF INSECTICIDES 25-27
VI. ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF INSECTICIDES 28-29
VII. SUMMARY/CONCLUSION 30-32
VIII. REFERENCE 33-34
.

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IntroductIon Insecticides are substances used to
kill insects. They include ovicides
and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are
used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are
claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's
agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to
significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some
become concentrated as they spread along the food chain.
Insecticides can be classified into two major groups: systemic
insecticides, which have residual or long term activity; and contact insecticides,
which have no residual activity.
The mode of action describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest.
It provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action can be
important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated
species, such as fish, birds and mammals.
Insecticides may be repellent or non-repellent. Social insects such as ants
cannot detect non-repellents and readily crawl through them. As they return
to the nest they take insecticide with them and transfer it to their nestmates.
Over time, this eliminates all of the ants including the queen. This is slower
than some other methods, but usually completely eradicates the ant colony.
Insecticides are distinct from non-insecticidal repellents, which repel but
do not kill.
 Development of Insecticides
Insect pests in agriculture and public health cause undesirable effects:
negative impact on human activities and damage, spoilage, and losses of crop
plants, infra- structure and the materials of everyday life. The losses may range
from 10 to 40% for all kind of food and fibre crops. Several insects are
spreading human diseases such as malaria, river blindness, sleeping sickness
and a range of serious fevers and illnesses. Mosquito, 'Public Enemy Number
One', remains a major public health problem as vector of malaria. West Nile
virus and yellow fever, filariasis, dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis.
 Negative Impact on Human Health
Synthetic insecticides, introduced in the 1940s, a heterogeneous category of
biologically active compounds, have become crucial, widely used weapons for
pests control and infectious diseases.

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In recent years, there has been an increasing concern that pesticides
constitute a risk to the general population through residues in the food
supply and through food chain and cause potential effects on human
health, wildlife and sensitive ecosystems .Overzealous use of synthetic
insecticides led to numerous problems unforeseen at the time of their
introduction. Like acute and chronic poisoning of handlers, farm workers
and even consumers as the pesticides may enter food chain
Figure 1:- Entry of insecticides into the human body
Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them or
preventing them from engaging in undesirable or destructive behaviors. They
are classified based on their structure and mode of action.
Many insecticides act upon the insect's nervous system (e.g., cholinesterase
inhibition), while others act as growth regulators or endotoxins.
Table 1. Insecticide Types and Their Modes of Action
Insecticide Type Mode of Action
Organochlorine
Most act on neurons by causing a sodium/potassium
imbalance preventing normal transmission of nerve
impulses. Some act on the GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid)
receptor preventing chloride ions from entering the
neurons causing a hyperexcitable state characterized by
tremors and convulsions. Usually broad-spectrum

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Table 1. Insecticide Types and Their Modes of Action
insecticides that have been taken out of use.
Organophosphate
Cause acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and
accumulation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions
causing rapid twitching of voluntary muscles and
eventually paralysis. A broad-range insecticide, generally
the most toxic of all pesticides to vertebrates.
Organosulfur
Exhibit ovicidal activity (i.e., they kill the egg stage). Used
only against mites with very low toxicity to other
organisms.
Carbamates
Cause acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition leading to
central nervous system effects (i.e., rapid twitching of
voluntary muscles and eventually paralysis). Has very
broad spectrum toxicity and is highly toxic to fish.
Formamidines
Inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase that degrades
neurotransmitters causing an accumulation of these
compounds; affected insects become quiescent and die.
Used in the control of OP and carbamate-resistant pests.
Dinitrophenols
Act by uncoupling or inhibiting oxidative phosphorylation
preventing the formation of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). All types have been withdrawn from use.
Organotins
Inhibit phosphorylation at the site of dinitrophenol
uncoupling, preventing the formation of ATP. Used
extensively against mites on fruit trees and formerly used
as an antifouling agent and molluscacide; very toxic to
aquatic life.
Pyrethroids
Acts by keeping open the sodium channels in neuronal
membranes affecting both the peripheral and central
nervous systems causing a hyper-excitable state.
Symptoms include tremors, incoordination, hyperactivity
and paralysis. Effective against most agricultural insect
pests; extremely toxic to fish.
Nicotinoids
Act on the central nervous system causing irreversible
blockage of the postsynaptic nicotinergic acetylcholine
receptors. Used in the control of sucking insects, soil
insects, whiteflies, termites, turf insects and the Colorado
potato beetle. Generally have low toxicity to mammals,

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Table 1. Insecticide Types and Their Modes of Action
birds and fish.
Spinosyns
Acts by disrupting binding of acetylcholine in nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic cell. Effective
against caterpillars, lepidopteran larvae, leaf miners,
thrips and termites. Regarded for its high level of
specificity.
Pyrazoles
Inhibits mitochondrial electron transport at the NADH-
CoQ reductase site leading to disruption of ATP formation.
Effective against psylla, aphids, whitefly and thrips. Results
of testing on one type (fipronil) indicate no effects on the
clams, oysters or fish, with marginal effects on shrimp.
Pyridazinones
Interrupt mitochondrial electron transport at Site 1;
mainly used as a miticide; display toxicity to aquatic
arthropods and fish.
Quinazolines
Acts on the larval stages of most insect by inhibiting or
blocking the synthesis of chitin in the exoskeleton.
Developing larvae exhibit rupture of the malformed
cuticle or death by starvation; not registered in U.S.
Botanicals
Depending upon the type can have various effects:
Pyrethrum – affects both the central and peripheral
nervous systems, stimulating nerve cells to produce
repetitive discharges and eventually leading to paralysis.
Commonly used to control lice.
Nicotine – mimics acetylcholine (Ach) in the central
nervous system ganglia, causing twitching, convulsions
and death. Used most to control aphids and caterpillars.
Rotenone – acts as a respiratory enzyme inhibitor. Used as
a piscicide that kills all fish at doses non-toxic to fish food
organisms.
Limonene – affects the sensory nerves of the peripheral
nervous system. Used to control fleas, lice, mites and
ticks, while remaining virtually non-toxic to warm-blooded
animals and only slightly toxic to fish.
Neem – reduces feeding and disrupts molting by inhibiting
biosynthesis or metabolism of ecdysone, the juvenile

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Table 1. Insecticide Types and Their Modes of Action
molting hormone. Commonly used against moth and
butterfly larvae.
Synergists/Activators
Inhibit cytochrome P-450 dependent polysubstrate
monooxygenases (PSMOs) preventing the degradation of
toxicants, enhancing the activity of insecticides when used
in concert; synergists and activators are not in themselves
considered toxic or insecticidal.
Antibiotics
Act by blocking the neurotransmitter GABA at the
neuromuscular junction; feeding and egg laying stop
shortly after exposure while death may take several days.
Most promising use of these materials is the control of
spider mites, leafminers and other difficult to control
greenhouse pests.
Fumigants
Act as narcotics that lodge in lipid-containing tissues
inducing narcosis, sleep or unconsciousness; pest affected
depends on particular compound.
Inorganics
Mode of action is dependent upon type of inorganic: may
uncouple oxidative phosphorylation (arsenicals), inhibit
enzymes involved in energy production, or act as
desiccants. Pest group depends on compound (e.g., sulfur
for mites, boric acid for cockroaches).
Biorational
Grouped as biochemicals (hormones, enzymes,
pheromones natural agents such as growth regulators) or
microbials (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
nematodes). Act as either attractants, growth regulators
or endotoxins; known for very low toxicity to non-target
species.
Benzoylureas
Act as insect growth regulators by interfering with chitin
synthesis. Greatest value is in the control of caterpillars
and beetle larvae but is also registered for gypsy moth and
mushroom fly. Some types are known for their impacts on
invertebrates (reduced emergent species) and early life
stages of sunfish (reduced weight) (Boyle et al. 1996).

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Table 1 :- lists the major classes of insecticides and their modes of action.
Understanding these modes of action can aid in the identification of a
candidate cause. Particularly useful for understanding modes of action are
the results of enzyme assays or similar tests used in symptom identification
of affected organisms.
Figure 2. Chart showing U.S. insecticide use in 2001 in millions of acres.
PYR=pyrethroid, CARB=carbamate, OP=orthophosphate.
Insecticides are only used in agricultural, public health and industrial
applications, as well as household and commercial uses (e.g., control of
roaches and termites). The most commonly used insecticides are the
organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbonates (see Figure 1).
The USDA (2001) reported that insecticides accounted for 12% of total
pesticides applied to the surveyed crops. Corn and cotton account for the
largest shares of insecticide use in the United States.
Insecticides are applied in various formulations and delivery systems (e.g.,
sprays, baits, slow-release diffusion; see Figure 2) that influence their transport
and chemical transformation. Mobilization of insecticides can occur via runoff
(dissolved or sorbed to soil), atmospheric deposition, or sub-surface flow
(Goring and Hamaker 1972, Moore and Ramamoorthy 1984).

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Figure 2. A crop duster airplane spraying a field with insecticides. Aerial drift
of insecticides can cover long distances depending on wind and other factors.
Soil erosion from high intensity agriculture, facilitates the transport of
insecticides into waterbodies (Kreuger et al. 1999). Some insecticides are
accumulated by aquatic organisms and transferred to their predators.
Insecticides are designed to be lethal to insects, so they pose a particular risk
to aquatic insects, but they also affect other aquatic organisms.
 Checklist of Sources, Site Evidence and Biological Effects
Insecticides should be a candidate cause when human sources and activities,
site observations or observed biological effects support portions of the source-
to-impairment pathways (Figure 3). This diagram and some of the other
information also may be useful in Step 3: Evaluate Data from the Case.

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Figure 3. A simple conceptual diagram illustrating causal pathways, from
sources to impairments, related to insecticides
The checklist below will help you identify key data and information useful for
determining whether to include insecticides among your candidate causes. The
list is intended to guide you in collecting evidence to support, weaken or
eliminate insecticides as a candidate cause. For more information on specific
entries, go to the When to List tab.
Consider listing insecticides as a candidate cause based on the presence of the
following sources and activities, site evidence or biological effects:

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Sources and Activities
 Agricultural runoff
 Irrigation return water
 Tree farms and orchards
 Forestry application
 Mosquito control
 Insecticide manufacturing and storage
 Insecticide mixing and transfer to application equipment
 Urban and suburban runoff
 Combined sewer overflows (CSOs)
 Wastewater treatment plant discharges
Site Evidence
 Site data for insecticides in water or sediment
 Bioaccumulation of insecticides (e.g., in aquatic insects or fish tissue)
Biological Effects
 Mortality or developmental effects, especially in aquatic insects
(Kreutzweiser 1997)
 Catastrophic or mass drift of aquatic insects (Kreutzweiser and Sibley
1991; Beketov and Liess 2008)
 Reduced biological diversity (Relyea 2005), especially among aquatic
insects
 Sudden, massive kills of aquatic life (e.g., fish kills)
 Fish exhibiting cough, yawn, fin flickering, S-and partial jerk, nudge and
nip; difficulty in ventilation and aberrant behavior (Alkahem 1996)
 Elevated muscle and liver pyruvate levels in fish (Alkahem 1996)
 Decreased acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) activity in fish (Alkahem 1996)
Contributing, modifying and related factors that are important contributors to
the aquatic toxicity of insecticides are not identified. However, other stressors,
such as low dissolved oxygen or high temperatures, may exacerbate the effects
of insecticides.

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Consider other causes with similar evidence, since other stressors may cause
the same or similar effects to those caused by insecticides (Table 2).
Registration of insecticides
Any person desiring to import or manufacture any insecticide
may apply to the Registration Committee for the registration of such
insecticide and there shall be separate application for each such
insecticide:
Provided that any person engaged in the business of import or
manufacture of any insecticide immediately before the
commencement of this section shall make an application to the
Registration Committee within a period of (seventeen months) from
the date of such commencement for the registration of any
insecticide which he has been importing or manufacturing before
that date.
Provided further that where any person referred to in the preceding
proviso fails to make an application under that. proviso within the
period specified therein, he may make such application at any time
thereafter on payment of a penalty of one hundred rupees for every
Table 2. Causes with Effects Similar to Those of Insecticide Pollution
Effect Stressors
Aquatic insect or fish kills
Other toxics
Low dissolved oxygen
Low or high pH
High ammonia
Fish cough, yawn, jerk Metal contamination
Difficulty in respiration
Low dissolved oxygen
High temperature

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month or part thereon after the expiry of such period for the
registration of each such insecticide.
Central Insecticides Laboratory
The Central Government may, by notification in the official
Gazette, establish a Central Insecticides Laboratory under the control
of Director to be appointed by the Central Government to carry out
the functions entrusted to it by or under this Act:
Provided that if the Central Government so directs by a notification
in the official Gazette, the functions of the Central Insecticides
Laboratory shall, to such extent as may be specified in the
notification, be carried out at any such institution as may be
specified therein and thereupon the functions of the Director of the
Central Insecticides Laboratory shall to the extent so specified, be
exercised by the head of the institution.
Table 3. Insecticides / Pesticides Registered under section 9(3) of the
Insecticides Act, 1968 for use in the Country
Carpropamid Aureofungin Hexaconazole Isoprothiolan Fenarimol
Ediphenphos Dinocap Azoxystrobin Captan Copper Oxychloride
Chlorothalonil Cyazafamid Dinocap Metalaxyl-M Thiram
Tebuconazole Myclobutanil Iprodione Carboxin Lime Sulphur
Copper Sulphate Penconazole Benomyl Dodine Flusilazole
Kresoxim-
methyl
Kasugamycin Mancozeb Kitazin Mandipropami
Cymoxanil Ziram Bitertanol Carbendazim Difenoconazole
Metriam Dimethomorph Dithianon Propiconazole Zineb

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EFFECT OF INSECTICIDES ON HUMAN HEALTH
The effects of insecticides on human health are more risky
because of their exposure either directly or indirectly; yearly, more
than 26 million people suffer from pesticide poisoning with nearly
220,000 deaths. Hundreds of millions of people are exposed to
pesticides every year, primarily through agriculture: Globally, 36 % of
workers are employed in agriculture; this figure is rising to almost
50 % in Southeast Asia and the Pacific and to 66 % in sub-Saharan
Africa. However, with all their hazards, the production of insecticides
is continuously increasing in the international trade. Global pesticide
use reached record sales of US$ 40 billion in 2008.
We are continuously facing the challenges to decrease the incidence
of insect pests and vectors to maintain a safe environment for future
generations. Therefore, concerted global efforts shall be made to
achieve this goal by safer alternatives.
Insecticide Resistance
Insecticide resistance is an increasing problem faced by those who
need insecticides to efficiently control medical, veterinary and
agricultural insect pests. In many insects, the problem extends to all
major groups of insecticides. Since the first case of DDT resistance in
1947, the incidence of resistance has increased annually at an
alarming rate. It has been estimated that there are at least 447
pesticide resistant arthropods species in the world today (Callaghan,
1991). Insecticide resistance has also been developed by many
insects to new insecticides with different mode of action from the
main four groups.
The development of resistance in the fields is influenced by various
factors. These are biological, genetic and operational factors.

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Biological factors are generation time, number of offspring per
generation and migration. Genetic factors are frequency and
dominance of the resistance gene, fitness of resistance genotype and
number of different resistance alleles. These factors cannot be
influenced by man. However, such as treatment, persistence and
insecticide chemistry, all of which may and therefore timing and
dosage of insecticide application should be operational factors.
Pesticide resistance is the adaptation of pest population targeted by
a pesticide resulting in
decreased susceptibility to that chemical. In other words, pests
develop a resistance to a chemical through natural selection: the
most resistant organisms are the ones to survive and pass on their
genetic traits to their offspring (PBS, 2001).
Pesticide resistance is increasing in occurrence. In the 1940s, farmers
in the USA lost 7% of their crops to pests, while since the 1980s, the
percentage lost has increased to 13, even though more pesticides are
being used (PBS,2001). Over 500 species of pests have developed a
resistance to a pesticide (Anonymous, 2007). Other sources estimate
the number to be around 1000 species since 1945 (Miller, 2004).
Today, pests once major threats to human health and agriculture but
that were brought under control by pesticides are on the rebound.
Mosquitoes that are capable of transmitting malaria are now
resistant to virtually all pesticides used against them. This problem is
compounded because the organisms that cause malaria have also
become resistant to drugs used to treat the disease in humans. Many
populations of the corn earworm, which attacks many agricultural

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crops worldwide including cotton, tomatoes, tobacco and peanuts,
are resistant to multiple pesticides (Berlinger, 1996).
Despite many years of research on alternative methods to control
pests and diseases in crops, pesticides retain a vital role in securing
global food production and this will remain the case for the
foreseeable future if we wish to
feed an ever growing population.
In this figure, the first generation happens to have an insect with
a heightened resistance to a pesticide (red). After pesticide
application, its descendants represent a larger proportion of the
population because sensitive pests (white) have been selectively
killed. After repeated applications, resistant pests may comprise the
majority of the population (PBS, 2001).
Insecticides are applied to reduce the number of insects that destroy
crops or transmit disease in the field of agriculture, veterinary and
public health. Insecticides are not always effective in controlling
insects, since many populations have developed resistance to the
toxic effects of the compounds. Resistance can be defined an
FIG. 1. Pesticide
Application Can Artificially
Select For Resistant Pests.

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inherited ability to tolerate a dosage of insecticide that would be
lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal wild populations of
the same species.
Insecticides are in common use in agriculture as well as in houseplant
populations, gardens, and other living spaces in an attempt to
control the invasion of a seemingly endless array of insects.
Insecticides are used to keep populations under the control, but over
time insects can build up a resistance to the chemicals used. This is
called insecticide resistance. Insecticide resistance is apparent when
a population stops responding or does not respond as well to
applications of insecticides.
In recent years, many of the resistance mechanisms have been
detected and resistance detection methods have been developed.
These mechanisms have divided into four categories: a) increased
metabolism to non-toxic products, b)decreased target site sensitivity,
c)decreased rates of insecticide penetration, d) increased rates of
insecticide excretion. There are different methods to determine that
the mechanisms are available in any given population. We can see
the structure of the resistance mechanisms from these assays.
There are several thousand species of insect in the world of
particular nuisance to man, either as vectors of fatal and debilitating
diseases or destroyers of crops. Insecticide resistance is an increasing
problem faced by those who need insecticides to efficiently control
medical, veterinary and agricultural insect pests.

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Management of insecticide resistance
Resistance monitoring programme should no longer rely on testing the
response to one insecticide, with the intention of switching to another
chemical when resistance levels rise above the threshold which affects
disease control. Effective resistance management depends on early
detection of the problem and rapid assimilation of information on the
resistant insect population so that rational pesticide choices can be made.
After a pest species develops resistance to a particular pesticide, how do
you control it? One method is to use a different pesticide, especially one
in a different chemical class or family of pesticides that has a different
mode of action against the pest. Of course, the ability to use other
pesticides in order to avoid or delay the development of resistance in
pest populations hinges on the availability of an adequate supply of
pesticides with differing modes of action. This method is perhaps not the
best solution, but it allows a pest to be controlled until other
management strategies can be developed and brought to bear against
the pest. These strategies often include the use of pesticides, but used
less often and sometimes at reduced application rates.
The goal of resistance management is to delay evolution of resistance in
pests. The best way to achieve this is to minimize insecticide use. Thus,
resistance management is a component of integrated pest management,
which combines chemical and non chemical controls to seek safe,
economical, and sustainable suppression of pest populations. Alternatives
to insecticides include biological control by predators, parasitoids, and
pathogens. Also valuable are cultural controls (crop rotation,
manipulation of planting dates to limit exposure to pests, and use of
cultivars that tolerate pest damage) and mechanical controls (exclusion
by barriers and trapping).

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Because large-scale resistance experiments are expensive, time
consuming, and might worsen resistance problems, modeling has played
a prominent role in devising tactics for resistance management. Although
models have identified various strategies with the potential to delay
resistance, practical successes in resistance management have relied
primarily on reducing the number of insecticide treatments and
diversifying the types of insecticide used. For example, programs in
Australia, Israel, and the United States have limited the number of times
and periods during which any particular insecticide is used against cotton
pests.
Resistance management requires more effective techniques for detecting
resistance in its early stages of development.
Pest resistance to a pesticide can be managed by reducing selection
pressure by this pesticide on the pest population. In other words, the
situation when all the pests except the most resistant ones are killed by a
given chemical should be avoided. This can be achieved by avoiding
unnecessary pesticide applications, using non-chemical control
techniques, and leaving untreated refuges where susceptible pests can
survive.[17][18] Adopting the integrated pest management (IPM)
approach usually helps with resistance management.
When pesticides are the sole or predominant method of pest control,
resistance is commonly managed through pesticide rotation. This involves
alternating among pesticide classes with different modes of action to
delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance

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CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES AND THEIR
MODE OF ACTION
 PURPOSE
The IRAC Mode of Action (MoA) classification provides
growers, advisors, extension staff, consultants and crop
protection professionals with a guide to the selection
of acaricides or insecticides for use in an effective and
sustainable acaricide or insecticide resistance
management (IRM) strategy.
 Rules for inclusion of a compound in the MoA list:
 Names To be included in the active list,
compounds must have, or be very close to having,
a minimum of one registered use in at least one
country.
 when more than one active ingredient in that
chemical sub- group is registered for use, the
chemical sub-group name is used.
 when only one active ingredient is registered for
use, the name of that exemplifying active
ingredient may be use.

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 Classification Of Insecticides
1. Based on chemical composition
2. Based on the mode of entry of insecticides into the
body of the insect
3. Based on mode of action
4. Based on toxicity
5. Based on stage specificity

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1. Based on Chemical composition
• Inorganic insecticides:
Comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental
sulphur. This group includes arsenate and fluorine
compounds as insecticides. Sulphur as acaricides and zinc
phosphide as rodenticides
• Organic Insecticides:
I. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from
marine annelids, fish oil rosin soap from fishes etc.
II. Plant Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides:
Nicotinoids, pyrethroids, Rotenoids etc.
III. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines
Organophosphorous, Carbamate insecticides etc.,
IV. Hydrocarbon oils etc.

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2. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides
into the body of the insect
 Contact poisons:
These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect
body either through spiracles and trachea or through the
cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons can kill the insects by mere
coming in contact with the body of the insects. Eg: DDT.
 Stomach poisons:
The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants
when ingested act on the digestive system of the insect and
bring aboutthe kill of the insect. Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead
arsenate.
 Fumigants:
A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary
temperatures and sufficiently toxic to the insects. Eg:
Aluminium phosphide, Carbon disulphide.
 Systemic insecticides:
Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular
systems of plants irrespective of site of application and
poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Eg: Methyl demeton,
Phosphamidon, Acephate.

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3. Based on mode of action
 Physical poisons: Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a
physicaleffect. Eg: Heavy oils, tar oils etc. which cause death by
asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body moisture by their
abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from
the body as in charcoal.
 Protoplasmic poisons: A toxicant responsible for
precipitation of protein especially destruction of cellular
protoplasm of midgut epithelium. Eg. Arsenical compounds.
 Respiratory poisons: Chemicals which block cellular
respiration as in hydrogen cyanide (HCN), carbon monoxide etc.
 Nerve poisons: Chemicals which block Acetyl cholinesterase
(AChE) and effect the nervous system. Eg. Organophosphorous,
carbamates.
 Chitin inhibitors: Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of
synthesis of chitin due to which normal moulting and
development is disrupted. Ex Novaluron, Lufenuron Buprofezin
 General Poisons: Compounds which include neurotoxic
symptoms after some period and do not belong to the above
categories. Eg.Chlordane, Toxaphene.

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4. Based on toxicity

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5. Based on stage specificity
 Ovicides:-
A Substance or agent that kills eggs, especially the eggs of insects, mites,
or nematodes.
 Larvicides:-
A larvicide is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval
life stage of an insect
 Pupicides:-
A pupicide is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the pupa
of an insect
 Adulticides:-
A pesticide designed to kill adult insects rather than their larvae.

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 Uses of Insecticides
Insects are a big threat to crops as they can consume plant foliage, roots,
and stems, which can make them unsuitable for eating or other use and could
also damage the plants. The use of insecticides is necessary to provide the best
crop protection to combat these pests, some of which feed exclusively on
certain crops. Before insecticides gained widespread use, a significant portion
of the crops grown was consumed by insects and led to regular losses. While
there are some biological controls in the environment, such as natural
predators or parasites that attack the insects which feed on crops, there was
little to no control over these factors. The crop protection that insecticides
provide has played a big role in helping agriculture, especially when it comes to
increasing yield.
There is a need for insecticides for almost all commercial agriculture
requirements, including organic farming. As the interest in organic produce has
grown, organic farmers have also found the need to use insecticides that are
approved for organic use to protect their crops and prevent contamination
from insects.
Insecticides also enter water bodies as a result of spray drift during
application, particularly during aerial applications, forest or orchard spraying,
or spraying near roadsides and wetlands to control mosquitoes.
Table 3. Examples of Crops and Common Insecticides Used
Crop Insecticides
Corn,
sweet
Permethrin (pyrethroid), Esfenvalerate (pyrethroid), Bacillus
thuringiensis (BT—Biologicals), Diazinon (organophosphate),
Methomyl (carbamate), Malathion (organophosphate), pyrethrin
(botanical), Carbaryl (N-methyl carbamate), Endosulfan
(organochlorine)
Alfalfa
Beta-cyfluthrin (pyrethyroid), Carbaryl (carbamate), Chlorpyrifos
(organophosphate), Cyfluthrin (pyrethroid), Dimethoate
(organophosphate), Gama-cyhalothrin (pyrethroid), Idoxacard
(carboxylate), Methomyl (carbamate). Methyl Parathion
(organophosphate), Permethrin (pyrethroid), Phosmet
(organophosphate), Spinosad (fermentation product), Zeta-

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Table 3. Examples of Crops and Common Insecticides Used
Crop Insecticides
cypermethrin (pyrethroid)
Sorghum
Beta-cyfluthrin (pyrethyroid), Carbaryl (carbamate), Chlorpyrifos
(organophosphate), Deltamethrin (pyrethroid), Dimethoate
(organophosphate), Esfenvalerate (pyrethroid), Gama- and Lamda-
cyhalothrin (pyrethroid), Malathion (organophosphate),
Methidathion (organophosphate), Methomyl (cyclodine), Spinosad
(fermentation product), Zeta-cypermethrin (pyrethroid)
Sunflower
Bacillus thuringiensis (bacterium), Beta-cyfluthrin (pyrethyroid),
Carbaryl (carbamate), Chlorpyrifos (organophosphate),
Deltamethrin (pyrethroid), Esfenvalerate (pyrethroid), Gama- and
Lamda-cyhalothrin (pyrethroid), Methyl Parathion
(organophosphate), Zeta-cypermethrin (pyrethroid)
Wheat
Beta-cyfluthrin (pyrethyroid), Carbaryl (carbamate), Chlorpyrifos
(organophosphate), Dimethoate (organophosphate), Endosulfan
(chlorinated hydrocarbon), Gama- and Lamda-cyhalothrin
(pyrethroid), Malathion (organophosphate), Methidathion
(organophosphate), Methomyl (cyclodine), Methyl parathion
(organophosphate), Spinosad (fermentation product), Zeta-
cypermethrin (pyrethroid)
Grapes
Sevin (carbaryl), Imidan (phosmet), Kelthane (dicofol), Guthion
(azinphos methyl), Vendex (hexakis fenbutatin-oxide), Lanate
(methomyl), Methoxychlor (methoxychlor), Provado (imidacloprid),
Thiodan (endosulfan), Malathion, Neemix, Pyrethrins
Citrus
Cygon 400 (dimethoate), Cythion 57% (malathion), Diazinon AG500
(organophosphate), Dibrom 8E, Dipel 2X, Imidan 50 WP, Lannate L,
Lorsban 15 G, Metasystox-R, Parathion 4E, Thiodan 3E, Zolone 3EC
Cotton
Acramite (bifenazate); Baythroid (cyfluthrin); Dimilin
(diflubenzuron); Fulfill (pymetrozine); MSR (oxydemeton-methyl);
Temik (aldicarb); Venom (dinotefuran); Zeal (etoxazole)
Soybeans
Asana XL (esfenvalerate); Baythroid 2 (cyfluthrin); Cruiser 5FS
(thiamethoxam); Dimethoate 4E (organophosphate); Gaucho 480
(imidacloprid); Lorsban 4E (chlorpyrifos); Mustang Max (pyrethroid);
Nufos 4E (chlorpyrifos); Warrior (organophosphate)
Table 3:- lists insecticides commonly used with popular agricultural crop

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 Types of Synthetic Insecticides
Synthetic insecticides are the most common type of insecticide in use. They
can be toxic to a wide range of insect species. Some of the main types of
synthetic insecticides include:
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
Also called organ chlorines, chlorinated organics, chlorinated insecticides, and
chlorinated synthetics, these insecticides contain carbon, chlorine, and
hydrogen. Some of these insecticides had long residual action and were
effective for long periods of time. They were developed in the 1940s but have
since fallen out of use.
• Organophosphates:
These are insecticides containing phosphorus which are derived from one of
the phosphorous acids. Organophosphates are effective in controlling insect
populations since they inhibit the functioning of their nervous system. They are
especially effective against sucking insects that feed on plant juices. They have
little residual activity which is why they have become very popular in use as
they can meet the residual tolerance limits that may be in place for crop
production.
• Carbamates :
Carbamates are insecticides that are derived from carbamic acid. They are
effective in eliminating insects but they can also be rapidly detoxified from
mammal tissues, making them less toxic to animals and humans. There are
many more types of insecticides that are commercially available. All
insecticides come with usage guidelines that make them effective to control
insects and be useful in preventing damage to crops without being toxic to
humans. UPL provides a range of insecticides to deal with destructive pests
that can harm a farmer’s crop. We continue to develop new formulations with
different applications and modes of action to provide more effective
protection.

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 Advantages of Insecticides
Insecticides are the primary means of controlling the majority of
insect pests that attack crops. They come with many advantages:
 Insecticides can increase yields, improving production & income
They are a simple and effective way of controlling pest populations that
would otherwise lead to the damage of crops. Without insecticides, large
portions of cultivated crops would be lost, leading to a loss of income for
the farmers, and also a waste of the resources that were used to grow the
crops. With insecticides, it is possible to have higher yields and
 Insecticides improve the quality of crops
Consumers expect to get pest-free fruits and vegetables and insecticides
directly play a role in ensuring the crop quality isn't hampered by insects.
Controlling insects also controls some plant diseases that are spread by
insects which can lead to deterioration in the quality.
 Insecticides can provide quick pest control
Insecticides make it possible to control pests quickly. Even when there is a
high population of damaging pests, in most cases insecticides can be used
to reduce the pests within hours.
 Insecticides can provide protection against multiple pest species
Some insecticides provide broad-spectrum protection and some
insecticides can be used in combination with another which makes it
possible to control many pest species at the same time.
 Insecticides are constantly developed to provide protection even
against new pest species
As pests evolve, we continue to do research to improve insecticides.
Chemical insecticides can be formulated relatively quickly to provide
protection sooner than other alternative methods of pest control.

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Disadvantages of Insecticides
1. Non-target organisms – Insecticides can kill more than intended
organisms and are risky to humans and when these insecticides mix
with water sources through drift, leaching, or runoff, they
harm aquatic wildlife. Birds when drinking such
contaminated water and eating affected insects then they die. Few
examples of insecticides such as DDT were banned in the US as it
affects the reproductive abilities of predatory birds.
2. Resistance – Insects when repeatedly exposed to insecticides build
up resistance until finally, they have little or no effect at all and
the reproduction in insects is so quick that they produce a new
generation every three to four weeks and because of this,
the resistance builds up rapidly
 Insecticides can be harmful to the environment if used improperly.
They can also be harmful to humans and other animals if ingested.
 Insecticides are chemicals that are used to kill insects. They are
used in agriculture to protect crops from being eaten by insects,
and in homes to protect against insects that can spread diseases.
 There are several disadvantages to using insecticides. First, they can
kill beneficial insects along with the pests. This can disrupt the
natural balance of the ecosystem and lead to the proliferation of
pests. Second, they can be harmful to humans and animals. They
can cause skin rashes, respiratory problems, and even death. Third,
they can be expensive to use. And fourth, they can be ineffective in
controlling pests.
 In conclusion, there are several disadvantages to using insecticides.
They can kill beneficial insects, be harmful to humans and animals,
be expensive to use, and be ineffective in controlling pests.

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SUMMARY
Insecticides are chemical substances used to kill or control insects that are
considered pests. While they are effective in combating insect infestations and
protecting crops, they can also have various effects on human health. Here is a
summary of the different effects insecticides can have on human health:
 Acute toxicity: Some insecticides can be highly toxic and may cause
immediate health effects when individuals are exposed to high concentrations
or doses. Symptoms can range from mild irritation to severe poisoning,
including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, headaches, respiratory distress, and in
extreme cases, seizures or even death.
 Chronic health effects: Long-term exposure to certain insecticides, even at
low levels, can lead to chronic health problems. Prolonged exposure has been
associated with an increased risk of various health issues, such as cancer
(including leukemia, lymphoma, and tumors), neurological disorders,
reproductive problems, endocrine disruption, and developmental disorders.
 Respiratory problems: Insecticides, particularly those in spray or aerosol
form, can be inhaled and irritate the respiratory system. This can cause
breathing difficulties, coughing, wheezing, and exacerbate existing respiratory
conditions like asthma.
 Skin and eye irritation: Contact with certain insecticides can cause skin
irritation, such as rashes, itching, or burning sensations. They can also irritate
the eyes, leading to redness, tearing, or discomfort.
 Allergic reactions: Some individuals may develop allergic reactions to
specific insecticides. Symptoms can range from mild skin irritation to severe
allergic reactions, including hives, swelling, difficulty breathing, or anaphylaxis,
a potentially life-threatening condition.
 Developmental and reproductive effects: Exposure to certain
insecticides during pregnancy can potentially harm the developing fetus,

38. [RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY] | 31
leading to birth defects or developmental delays. Some insecticides have also
been linked to reduced fertility, miscarriages, and hormonal imbalances.
 Occupational risks: Individuals who work in agriculture, pest control, or
other industries involving insecticide use are at a higher risk of exposure. They
may experience more significant health effects due to repeated or prolonged
contact with these chemicals.
It's important to note that the specific health effects of insecticides can vary
depending on the type of insecticide used, the concentration, the duration and
frequency of exposure, and individual susceptibility. To minimize the risks, it is
crucial to follow safety guidelines, use protective measures when handling or
applying insecticides, and seek professional advice when necessary.

39. [RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY] | 32
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the use of insecticides can have diverse effects on
human health. While they are effective in controlling pests and
protecting crops, it is essential to be aware of the potential risks they
pose. The effects of insecticides can range from acute toxicity,
causing immediate symptoms of poisoning, to chronic health issues
resulting from long-term exposure. Respiratory problems, skin and
eye irritation, allergic reactions, and developmental and reproductive
effects are also associated with insecticide exposure. Additionally,
occupational risks are a concern for individuals working with
insecticides regularly. To minimize these risks, it is crucial to follow
safety guidelines, employ protective measures, and seek professional
advice when handling or using insecticides. Overall, a balanced
approach that considers both the benefits and potential health
hazards of insecticides is necessary to ensure the well-being of
humans and the environment.

40. [RAJIV GANDHI INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY] | 33
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