2. Clauses
• Clauses: the building blocks of sentences
• A clause is a grammatical unit that includes a complete
subject and a predicate (complete verb).
• Many punctuation errors occur when a writer does not
understand the conventions for separating or joining
clauses.
3. Clauses 2
• There are two main types of clauses:
• Independent clauses express a complete thought and can stand on their
own as sentences.
• The apple fell.
• Dependent clauses begin with subordinating words and cannot stand on
their own.
• Because the apple fell
• A complete sentence sentence must include at least one independent
clause.
4. Clauses 3
• The adverb clause, the most common type of dependent clause,
serves a variety of purposes in the sentence.
• Some of its most common functions are to indicate time and place, to
provide reasons and explanations, and to describe methods,
conditions, and outcomes.
• The adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.
5. Clauses 4
• Common subordinating conjunctions:
as after although
because even though if
now that provided rather than
since unless until
when whether while
• Examples of adverb clauses:
• When the Berlin Wall fell
• Because traffic was so heavy
6. Dependent Clauses and Commas
• When an adverb clause occurs before an independent
clause, it is followed by a comma.
• Because traffic was so heavy, I was late.
7. Dependent Clauses and Commas cont.
• If an adverb clause occurs after an independent
clause, it is NOT preceded by a comma unless it begins
with although, whereas, even though, or other terms
that indicate a contrast.
• I was late because traffic was so heavy.
• I was late, although the traffic was relatively light for the
time of day.
8. Restrictive Clauses
• That is used in a restrictive clause. Such a clause is
necessary to distinguish or define a particular subject.
• A rainbow is a phenomenon that typically occurs after
rain.
9. Nonrestrictive Clauses
• Which is used in a nonrestrictive clause. Such a clause
describes a subject but is not necessary for its meaning.
• Place a comma before the restrictive clause. However, if it
occurs in the middle of the sentence, place a comma before
and a comma after the clause.
• The clinic, which is open until ten p.m. every night,
provides underprivileged people with quality healthcare.
10. Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive
• Some writers use which and that interchangeably to
introduce restrictive clauses, but this practice is
controversial.
• Controversial: The speech which you gave was very
informative.
• Revised: The speech that you gave was very informative.
11. That Verses Who
• That is used to modify an object, thing, or animal. No
comma is used when punctuating.
• Incorrect: The book is next to the cat who is on the stairs.
• Correct: The book is next to the cat that is on the stairs.
12. That Verses Who cont.
• Who is used when modifying a person. If the clause is
nonrestrictive, use a comma. If the clause is
restrictive, do not use a comma.
• Incorrect: The Senator is the one that won the award.
• Correct: The Senator is the one who won the award.
• Incorrect: Sarah, that is 12, is washing dishes.
• Correct: Sarah, who is 12, is washing dishes.
13. Comma Splices
• A comma splice occurs when a writer joins two
independent clauses with only a comma.
• Incorrect: The company opened its doors in 1992, its cars
have been consistently reliable ever since.
14. Comma Splices 2
There are five options for fixing a comma splice
1. Make two separate sentences
• The company opened its doors in 1992. Its cars have
been consistently reliable ever since.
2. Make one independent clause subordinate
• Since the company opened its doors in 1992, its cars have
been consistently reliable.
15. Comma Splices 3
3. Change one of the independent clauses into a
phrase
• Opening its doors in 1992, the company has
manufactured consistently reliable cars.
4. Join the independent clauses with a semi-colon
• The company opened its doors in 1992; its cars have been
consistently reliable ever since.
16. Comma Splices 4
5. Join the independent clauses with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. The coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
(FANBOYS is a mnemonic device that will help you
remember them).
• The company opened its doors in 1992, and its cars have
been consistently reliable ever since.
17. Fragments
• A fragment is an incomplete sentence, which means
that it does not include an independent clause.
• Many fragments fall into one of the following
categories:
• Missing subject or verb
• Dependent clause punctuated as a sentence
18. Fragments cont.
• How to fix fragments
• Add a subject or a verb
Fragment: The boat on the ebbing tide.
Revised: The boat drifted out on the ebbing tide.
• Add an independent clause (sometimes preceding or
following the fragment)
Fragment: That I lost yesterday.
Revised: I found the contract that I lost yesterday.
19. Run-ons
• A run-on, or fused sentence, consists of independent
clauses that have not been separated by punctuation
or joined by connecting words correctly.
• The speed limit is fifty miles per hour on this road but we
should go no faster than forty since it's raining so hard this
weather is dangerous.
20. Run-ons cont.
• To fix a run-on sentence, ensure that the sentence
includes correct punctuation and ends when the idea
is complete.
• The speed limit is fifty miles per hour on this road, but we
should go no faster than forty since it's raining so hard.
This weather is dangerous.
