Trans-fats are made through a hydrogenation process that turns vegetable oils into solid fats. This document provides historical context on trans-fats, discussing their invention and marketing by Procter & Gamble in the early 20th century. It then summarizes numerous studies that have found relationships between trans-fat consumption and increased health risks such as heart disease, diabetes, and inflammation. Recent actions to reduce trans-fats include bans in some jurisdictions and the FDA moving to limit their use in foods.

1. A View of Industrial Trans-Fats
Trans-Fats: A Look at Their Manufacture and Effects on the Human Body
Trans-fats are, by definition of a 2007 patent application held by HRD Corporation, is a
hydrogenated vegetable oil that is designed to be thermally stable. The technique involves
hydrogenating vegetable oils, and through a series of chemical catalysts, produces a more stable
fat. During the process, the normally liquid unsaturated oil changes into a solid trans-fat. The
process adds more hydrogen atoms to available carbon atoms, which changes the chemical
properties of the substance at a molecular level. This application is intended to make sure that
this technique of hydrogenating vegetable oils belongs to HRD Corporation, and is intended to
be a legal document for the legal system and other companies to see to make sure they are not
going to have a lawsuit if they manufacture oils in this way. This source does not label trans-fats
in a positive or negative way; it simply describes how this particular company makes this
component of food. However, my secondary sources I researched found that trans-fats are
something that should be talked about in a negative way. I chose to do research on trans-fats
because, as I am someone who plans on going into the nutrition field, this is sort of a hot-button
topic. It is widely known that synthesized trans-fats are unhealthy, but many do not understand
why they are unhealthy.
One study found that the consumption of industrial trans-fats increased the risk of death
for any reason by 34%, 28% higher risk of death caused by chronic heart disease, and a 21%
increase in the risk for getting chronic heart disease. The results for whether or not trans-fats
increased the risk of type-II diabetes or stroke was inconsistent.

2. Another study found that trans-fats increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as
chronic heart disease, by increasing plaque buildup along arterial walls. This process is
described as trans-fats displacing essential fatty acids in the blood, increasing low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad cholesterol, in the blood, and interfering with the synthesis of
enzymes that convert the essential fatty acids into other substances needed by the body. Trans-
fats were also found to cause inflammation of the arteries, which cause them to leak calcium ions
into the blood. High LDL, inflamed and calcified arteries are signs of atherosclerosis, which
may lead to cardiovascular diseases.
In addition to problems with the cardiovascular system, it has also been observed that
trans-fats reduce memory capacity in men under 45 years of age. On average, in a word memory
test, the average amount of words recalled was 86. However, for every gram of trans-fats
individuals consumed daily, it was found that they had a decline in memory function by 0.76
words. This does not sound like a lot, but in the event that multiple grams are consumed per day,
then the number adds up. The study was done based on the theory that trans-fats are damaging
to the body in ways other than the cardiovascular system.
In animal studies, it was also found that in monkeys, those with higher trans-fat based
diets were more likely to develop the “apple” pattern of fat distribution. The “apple” pattern is
used to describe adipose storage around the abdomen, and is linked to a higher risk of heart
disease and diabetes. When Calories were controlled for (as in, all test subjects were given the
same number of Calories from the same macronutrient categories), the male monkeys that ate
more of their fat Calories from trans-fat sources had an increase in body weight by 7.2% over six
years, compared to the 1.8% from monounsaturated fat sources (i.e. olive oil), with 30% of the

3. gained weight appearing around the abdomen. The diets of the monkeys that caused this
increase got 8% of their fat Calories from trans-fat sources.
Some action being taken against trans-fat consumption, since evidence points to high
consumption having adverse health effects, is a nation-wide ban of its use in the United
Kingdom. Researchers found that a total ban of trans-fat use in England could postpone up to
7,200 premature deaths from coronary heart disease, and stop 3,000 total premature deaths.
Increasing labeling or reducing the use of trans-fats would be half as effective as banning trans-
fats our right. A total ban would save a total of £264m, or £64m if the cost of implementing the
plan is included. This amounts to a savings of over $371m or $89m for the country. Some
English health officials support this idea, as it improves public health conditions. Banning trans-
fats from being used in foods can in turn allow the money saved overall to be added to other
programs to better the country.
Trans-fats are made from a process called hydrogenation, and makes the oil more shelf-
stable. However, consuming trans-fats also increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, and
may also reduce memory formation. Researchers in the United Kingdom found banning trans-
fats would overall save the country money, which could possibly be used elsewhere. If the
United States looks to see if banning trans-fats from being added, or even labeled better on food,
there could in turn be less demand on the medical system for cardiovascular diseases, and allow
more resources to be saved.
A Look at Trans-Fats In History
In 1837, William Procter and James Gamble formed a business union based on their
specialties of making soaps and candles. Forty-four years later, in 1911, Procter & Gamble

4. introduced Crisco as an alternative to animal fats, such as butter. The product was hydrogenated
vegetable oil, designed to remain solid year round. It was sold in white paper. The next year,
Procter & Gamble started advertising their vegetable oil-based shortening, claiming that one can
fry fish and potatoes in the same meal, and not have the flavors of one influence the other.
Cookbooks deliverable by mail also persuaded people, particularly married women with
children, to purchase their product. Cook books such as these helped to cement the home
economy as a profession.
In 1923, Procter & Gamble started packaging their shortening in cans, rather than in
paper, so as to maintain the freshness of the product. During World War II, Crisco was packaged
in glass so as to conserve metal for war efforts. In 1949, when television began to grow in
popularity, Procter & Gamble began to advertise their product on live TV.
In 1981, Procter & Gamble were faced with a problem. People have still resisted
switching to Crisco for baking, because the consumer much preferred the flavor of butter. To
compete, Procter & Gamble introduced butter flavor to their shortening. Their next attempt to
win over those preferring butter, Procter & Gamble introduced Crisco in stick form in 1991.
Procter & Gamble was acquired by J. M. Smucker Company in 2002.
As health concerns over trans-fats in foods, such as shortening and other hydrogenated
and partially-hydrogenated oils, rose, Crisco was introduced in a Zero-Gram Trans-Fat version in
2004. While vegetable oil based shortening, such as Crisco, has been in use in the United States
for over 100 years, concerns over their health risk has become examined further, and legal
actions to ban, reduce, or label more clearly, their usage in foods have been in the works during
recent history.

5. The article Trans fats: implications for health by Emma Derbyshire addresses some
researched facts about trans-fats. She addresses research from 2002, which states that trans-fats
should be eaten in as small amounts as possible. Later research from 2006 indicates that one
should consume no more than 1% of their daily Caloric intake in trans-fats as they could pose
possible health risks such as type-II diabetes, obesity, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
Finally, she concludes that in the UK, as food companies remove added industrial trans-fats, it is
currently advised that healthcare professionals advise patients to eat a balanced and healthful
diet.
The article New York to Trans Fats: You’re Out by Susan Okie, MD addresses some
legal movements in New York State in 2007. Beginning in that year, restaurants were no longer
allowed to use more than 0.5g of trans-fats per serving while preparing food. The health
department offered education and assistance to chefs and bakers who were now required to make
the change. Within the law, some professions that would have a more difficult time using
alternate lipids, such as bakers, had until the beginning of 2008 to make the change. The FDA
required food companies to label foods that had more than 0.5g trans-fats per serving in 2006.
However, this is a minor change when compared to Denmark, who completely removed all trans-
fats from their foods, such as fried foods and baked items, in 2004.
In 2009, a Canadian study called Consumer perceptions of trans fats in 2009 show
awareness of negative effects but limited concern regarding use in snack foods aimed to see how
Canadian consumers viewed trans-fats in their food. A simple survey was conducted, and
researchers recorded how frequently certain answers would appear. The research concluded that
despite the public’s knowledge that trans-fats were deemed unhealthy, there was little concern
about their usage in packaged foods. This psychological research aimed to open up further

6. research to help improve consumer knowledge on trans-fats and the association with Chronic
Heart Disease.
While trans-fats usage in packaged foods is on the decline, a group of researchers in 2012
found that of the 4,340 brand-named products examined using a database, nine percent contained
partially hydrogenated oils. Of the nine percent, 84% listed themselves as having zero grams
trans-fat per serving. This type of labeling can be problematic for consumers, as the package
lists that there is no trans-fat in the product, yet due to the presence of partially hydrogenated
oils, there is up to 0.5 grams per serving, meaning that if someone eats multiple servings of foods
containing trans-fats, they are consuming significant quantities of industrial trans-fats without
knowing it.
This issue is highlighted by a note from the editor-in-chief of Clinical Therapeutics,
Richard I. Schader, MD, in which he details a breakfast consisting of pancakes, sausage, eggs,
and coffee that someone can get in a restaurant. Everything on the plate can be listed as trans-fat
free, but because of the standards put in place by the FDA, the meal could contain less than 2.5
grams of trans-fat and legally be considered trans-fat free.
In 2015, the FDA released a consumer report that detailed the efforts against trans-fat
usage in foods. In 2013, it was preliminarily determined that trans-fats should no longer be
considered “generally recognized as safe.” This is due in part to the compiling evidence that
trans-fats have several adverse health-risks associated with its consumption. Unfortunately, food
companies can still lobby to have trans-fats used in certain circumstances. For the time being,
the FDA recommends consumers read food labels and look for terms like “hydrogenated,” or
“partially-hydrogenated,” to indicate the presence of industrial trans-fats.

7. A recent article published in 2016 for the journal Comprehensive Reviews in Food
Science and Food Safety recommends that consumers limit the consumption of saturated fats,
and reduce the use of trans-fats as much as possible. They recommend that trans-fats be a
maximum of 1% of dietary Calories, because of the health risks. As a replacement, poly-
unsaturated fatty acids are advised. These are usually referred to as “oils” in the culinary world,
since they are usually liquid at room temperature. The World Health Organization recognizes
poly-unsaturated fats, because they provide high amounts of energy, as well as high amounts of
omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which lower LDL levels, which is associated with chronic
heart disease.
Industrial (as in, manufactured and not naturally occurring) trans-fats have had a long
history within the culinary realm. However, that history might be coming to an end. From its
invention in the latter 19th
century, trans-fats have been scrutinized for not tasting as good as
butter. As research technology caught up, several articles have been published on the health
impacts diets with high trans-fat consumption. Within recent years, the FDA has moved to
heavily reduce the amount of trans-fats available within foods. However, because there can be
trace amounts per food serving, trans-fats are still prevalent within peoples’ diets.
Scientific Innovations that Impacted Trans-fats
As seen in the US Patent for one method of trans-fat production, the process involves
taking vegetable oils and hydrogenating them. According to the Center for Science in the public
interest, hydrogenation occurs when the oil is heated in the presence of hydrogen atoms and a
catalyst. This changes the molecular structure of the oil, making it change its properties. The
properties that the food industry want are shelf stability and “hardness” of the product. Food

8. companies have found more extravagant ways to make trans-fats as research in the field
improves.
One of the sources of vegetable oil comes from soybeans. A 2014 research paper points
out that since 1996, approximately 71% of genetically modified crops are soy. Soy accounts for
60% of oil production, and is the most widely consumed vegetable oil globally. To test for the
presence of GMO soy in soybean oil, the study sought to extract DNA from the crude oil, and
compare the DNA sequences found within to references to analyze the purity of the crude. The
process used here uses PCR, which is a machine that can replicate portions of DNA using
enzymes to make genomes of interest available for study. The use of PCR also takes place
within the medical field, as it can allow for the rapid detection of pathogens, which includes ones
difficult to detect using cultures. Some fields using PCR include virology, biology, and
periodontology. The use of PCR changes the meaning of the ingredients in trans-fats, as scientist
can measure quantities of GMO crops in their product and test it against claims that the food
company can make, such as if a company is promoting their product as GMO free, when the
trans-fats used might be mostly from modified soy.
For a while within pathology, it was unclear of how trans-fats caused atherosclerosis. A
2011 study was able to find that in animals with high blood cholesterol, introducing trans-fats to
their diet caused atherosclerosis due to a suppression of a growth factor within the aortic
endothelium. In the study, they suppressed the growth factor, induced high cholesterol, and
added trans-fats to their diet. The results found that there was a higher rate of deposition and
integration of cholesterol into the membranes of the aorta. Atherosclerosis of arteries can be
attributed to cholesterol being deposited into major vessels, as it forms a thick plaque that
reduces the internal area of the lumen. Because of this study, the mechanism of how trans-fats

9. impact health was further cemented, providing more evidence for the reduction of trans-fats in
the diet.
One popular brand of trans-fats is Crisco. Crisco, as part of Procter & Gamble, faced a
problem prior to 1981. People were not using their product. Instead, many people preferred to
use butter in their cooking, as they preferred its flavor. In 1981, Procter & Gamble started
adding butter flavoring to their product, in hopes that people would start to use their product.
However, butter flavoring itself has caused problems. Research has shown some support for the
hypothesis that the vapors, particularly diacetyl, from making artificial butter flavoring can lead
to necrosis in the pulmonary tissues, colloquially called “popcorn lung.” One study found that
rats that inhaled the chemicals used to make artificial butter flavor for six hours had necrosis
after one day. Four people in a Brazilian cookie factory were diagnosed with bronchiolitis.
These four were non-smokers who worked in the factory for 1-3 years without personal
protection equipment. This can change the meaning for dietary trans-fats in one of two ways.
The first is that there can be a food substance used that is similar enough to butter for those who
are vegan that tastes like butter for their cooking, such as baked goods. However, this research
also promotes the idea that trans-fats that are artificially flavored need to be banned or at least
heavily reduced globally. Workers within the factories that produce the flavoring are getting
sick with chronic illnesses associated to inhaling the fumes from the product. By reducing the
additives to trans-fats, or better yet, not using trans-fats in cooking at all, we can possibly stop
the workers from getting ill.
A 2012 study from University of California and San Diego School of Medicine
researched the effects of dietary trans-fats on behavior. The basis for this claim comes from
previous studies that have found evidence that omega-3 fatty acids reduce aggression. However,

10. dietary trans-fats have been found to decrease in its production. In the experiment, almost 1,000
individuals with extrinsic factors, such as race, alcohol consumption, gender etc. controlled for
and those with low or high LDL levels, on certain medications, HIV positive, or have cancer
were excluded, researchers found via a nutrition questionnaire how many grams of trans-fats
individuals consumed on a regular basis, and compared that to psychological scales for factors
such as childhood aggression, impatience, irritability etc. The study found that dietary trans-fat
consumption was a better predictor for an individual’s aggression than any other factor. This
adds new meaning to trans-fats in food, as there are more consequences to consuming trans-fats
than with the cardiovascular system, as many believe.
An article published in the American Journal of Health Promotion suggests that the FDA
change the requirements for labelling added trans-fats on food packages. Under the 2006
revisions, a serving of any food can have up to 0.5 grams added trans-fat and label the amount in
the serving as having “0 grams trans-fat.” This allows food companies to advertise their product
as being trans-fat free, when it could in fact still have added trans-fats present. The article
suggests that the FDA revise current labelling standards to list added trans-fats up to the nearest
0.1 gram, rounding up or down based on the significance of the hundredths place. This would
allow customers to make better choices based on what is listed in the Nutrition Facts panel,
without having to read the ingredients list for certain key words, that they may or may not fully
understand.
Hydrogenating oils to trans-fats have been done for a little over a century now, and since
then new research has been done on its effects on health. The use of PCR machines in the oil
industry can test the quality and presence of genetically modified DNA in the crude oil, ensuring
the product is as it claims to be. The addition of butter flavoring has caused an increased need

11. for chemical factories. However, these factories have had their workers fall ill due to the
chemical exhaust that they inhale if their personal protective equipment is malfunctioning or not
in use. Research in health has found the exact way that trans-fats cause atherosclerosis, and
other cardiovascular diseases. It has also been found that the amount of consumed trans-fats is
strongly linked to aggressive behaviors, more so than other predictive factors. Finally, it has
been suggested that the current labeling procedure in place by the FDA is misleading to the
consumer. There is a movement to increase how often trans-fats added to food is listed and
labeled on the packaging. As research improves, companies might find a way to make
inexpensive oils that are solid at room temperature with less impact on health, while phasing out
trans-fats, as public awareness on the health risks increases and governmental interventions take
place globally.
Globalization of Trans-fats
Many food companies use partially and fully hydrogenated oils in their products. These
products include pastries from Pillsbury, and several products from Nabisco, Betty Crocker, and
Hostess. A general rule of thumb used is many baked products, fried foods, or stick oils, like
margarine contain trans-fats. Because these products are made from raw materials globally, and
shipped internationally, trans-fats are a good example of an ingredient that has heavily been
impacted by globalization.
Since its research beginning in 1990, a variety of nations have scrutinized the use of
trans-fats in foods. Research from Canada found that trans-fats were linked to greater risk of
heart disease. Another study found that England could save upwards towards 7,200 lives and
$415 million for the nation, without factoring extrinsic costs, on healthcare costs alone. In
Europe, the nations that pioneer the reduction of added (as opposed the naturally occurring)

12. trans-fat consumption are Denmark, Austria, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland.
However, eastern Europe still has a high rate of consumption, at 30g trans-fats a day. It has been
researched that only 5g of trans-fats consumed a day has adverse health impacts.
A majority of the oils that get hydrogenated comes from soy. The largest producers of
soy are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, China, and India. The United States started off as
being one of the largest producers of soy, however, the other nations have also been increasing
the amount of soy they produce, as it can be used in animal feed, cooking, as well as providing
vegetable oil that might be sold as is, or become hydrogenated into oils. The global market for
soy has provided opportunities for people to have chances for employment, as farms require
many hands to maintain. The average amount of soy produced in the United States was 3 billion
bushels between 2008 and 2012. The states that produced the largest quantities of soy in the
United States are Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Indiana, and Ohio. Because of soy manufacture,
from the food industry manufacturing vegetable oil and trans-fats, people across the globe are
employed.
With the rise of consumers being against the use of trans-fats in food, many companies
are searching for an alternative. Among these include palm oils, coconut, and palm kernels.
While many sources upon a quick Google search cite coconut oil as a healthy fat, many experts
in the field remain skeptical of this, as coconut oil is high in saturated fat. One study found that
high saturated fat diets raised a variety of different LDL (or “bad” cholesterol) levels in patients.
LDL is associated with various cardiovascular diseases. Both trans-fats and saturated fats have
been found to elevate LDL levels, which may increase the risk of several diseases and shorten
lives.

13. Since trans-fats get a bad reputation, consumers would want to know what food sources
are okay to eat if they want to lower their risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Doctors
have found that a healthy diet will contain around 25-35% of daily Calories from fats, with only
10% maximum coming from saturated fat sources. The other kind of fat are unsaturated fats,
which are usually liquid at room temperature. Peanut, canola, and olive oils are recommended
over saturated fats, and especially trans-fats, overall because they are a healthier option. Other
foods that are oily, such as fish and nuts, are also highly recommended because they are rich in
omega-3 fatty acids, which are a necessary nutrient in the diet.
Industrial trans-fats have been affected by the global market. Many nations are
attempting to remove them from consumer products, because of their adverse health effects.
These nations are predominately in the global north, which includes the United States of
America. The FDA requires that partially hydrogenated oils be removed from foods by the year
2018, with some exceptions being made. The soy beans being used to provide the oils that
become hydrogenated are mainly grown in the United States, but other nations, such as China
and Brazil, may surpass the United States one day with manufacture. As the uses for industrial
trans-fats are being limited, food companies are attempting to find an alternative. Right now,
coconut oil and palm oils are frequently in use. However, many doctors advise against using
these oils, as they are high in saturated fats and might also cause a health detriment. Doctors
recommend going to foods rich in mono- or poly-unsaturated fats, like canola or peanut oil over
the unhealthier industrial trans-fats found in products like margarine and shortening.

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