Role of groundwater and small dams in water resources development Water Resource Day 1994

1. WATER RESOURCES DAY. 1994
NEW DELHI
,JW8~
INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

2. THEME PAPER ON
ROLE OF GROUND WATER AND SMALL
DAMS IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
WATER RESQU'RCES DAY 1994
PREPARED BY
IND-IAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

3. FOREWORD
The water resources development in India is passing through critical times in many
ways. On one hand, tJu>re are strong and persistent demands from the public, the politicians and
the states for further development through projects, large and small. On the other hand, there
is a considerable criticism about all water storage projects being undesirable. In order to discuss
such concerns, Water Resources Day is being observed in the country since 1986. In fact such
concerns are voiced and discussed world over. It is this concern that led the United Nations
Organisation to pass a resolution in 1992 to observe March 22 every Year as "World Day for
Water".
From 1988 onwards, it has been the practice to focus attention on a special theme every
year while observing Water Resources Day. For this purpose a theme paper is prepared and
discussed.
There are some who consider smalll surface projects .as environment friendly, quickly
implementable and less expensive. There are others who consider them as non-sustainable. There
are some who consider ground water as co~t-effective, more efficient besides being environment
friendly. However, depleting ground water in some areas has led to do.ubts about its sustainable .
character and local demands to stop its further withdrawal. Management ofpublic ground water
sources has been compared unfavourably with that of privately owned sources. To address these
and other relevant issues "Role of Ground Water and Small Dams in Water Resources Devel­
opment" is the theme chosen for the Water Resources Day, 1994.
All these years the theme papers have been prepared by Central Water Commission. This
year the responsibility has been passed on to Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS) - an
important departure indicative of the shift towards public involvement in shaping water re- .
sources development policies,
lWRS has done an excellent Job on the theme paper. As, perhaps, the largest multi­
disciplinary non-government organisatwn active in the Water Sector in India, I am sure, it will
also organise the main Curtain Raiser Function at New Delhi and Water Resources Day at a
large number of places all over the country equally successfully. The Ministry of Water Re­
sources eagerly awaits the feedback on the varz01).s issues raised in the theme paper.,
M .t~D~
-- .. ,
(M. S. Reddy)
Secretary to Govt. of India
Ministry of Water Resources

4. PREFACE
With a view to generate appropriate consciousness among the people about the need for
CD~serving water and for managing it on scientific lines, Water Resources Day is being observed
in. the country since 1986. In view of success achieved in this regard in India, U.N. Resolution
for organising Water Resources Day on 22nd March every year through-out the world was
passed in 1992. Subsequently ICID in their Hague declaration of 1993 also endorsed that for
creating mass awareness regarding water conservation, World Water Day may be organised
throughout the world on 22nd March. India has thus taken a lead over other countries in starting
the programme for mass awareness for water conservation.
From 1988 onwards, the discussions for creating public awareness are being focused on
a special theme, for WhICh a theme paper was being prepared by the Central Water Commission.
The Indian Water Resources Society was entrusted with the responsibility for arranging the
main Curtain Raiser Function at New Delhi since 1992. The IWRS Local Centres are also
observing the Day at various places in the country.
For the Water Resources Day of 1994, the theme chosen is "Role of Ground Water and
Small Dams in Water Resources Development". The Ministry of Water Resources have en­
trusted the responsibility for preparation of the theme paper on this subject to the Indian Water
Resources Society and extended necessary financial support. Perhaps IWRS being the registered
professional Society, the issues and general concerns with regard to the subject could be brought
out in the theme paper in proper perspective to enable wider public debate throughout the
country. Even though the time given for preparation of the paper was about 2 months only,
Indian Water Resources Society accepted this responsibility and have completed the job in time.
The following IWRS members and experts assisted IWRS in the preparation of this
theme paper
Contributors Reviewers
G. S. Jakhade (Team Leader)
Khoche CD.
Mathur P.C
Tyagi A. C
Saxena R. P.
Gupta S. L.
Wadhawan C 1.
BCtllJ.hopadhyay
Dutta D. K.
Mohile A. D.
Saxena R. S.
Indian Water Resources Society would li~ to place on record their sincere appreciation
and compliment the above-named officers and for all those involved in preparation, review and
publication of the theme paper.
NEW DELHI (A. B. JOSHI)
Dated 15th March, 1994 CHAIRMAN, CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION
and PRESIDENT, INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

5. ROLE OF GROUND WATER AND SMALL DAMS
IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
THEME PAPER FOR WATER RESOURCES DAY 1994 DEliBERATIONS
1. INTRODLCTION
1.1 . •ater j- one of the most precious gifts of nature. Life and civilization cannot exist without water.
- =~ :-:1E: . 'r is simply a need for drinking water, and to others the need of water might be economic
~ ·or convenien~e. Water is vital for production, improvement of health, industrial developme'-nt
3 d 50 on. Agriculture, however, is the largest user of water.
1.2 The paradox about water i's that inspite of its being plentiful, usable or consumable water is a scarce
resource and its supply is limited. The resource .is also highly unevenly distributed. The demand of water
for various end uses such as irrigation, drinking water supply, industries, power generation, fisheries,
navigation, recreation is ever increasing becaus~ of the ceaseless rise in human population. As per the
present projections, the Indian population would cross the mark of 1000 million by the turn of century.
To meet with the demands of water actuated by not only increase in population but also by increase
in standard of living, as well as increases in varieties of its use, it has become inevitable to search for
new techniques, technologies and innovations for increasing the supply of 'usable water'. All these
essentially aim storing, di,verting, conserving and recycling or managing usable water resources.
1.3 The economic prosperity of India has been linked with Agriculture development for which water
resources development is very important. Vagaries of rainfall have from time immemorial underscored
the need for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation in India has, thus been practiced from prehistoric times and
it has the largest irrigated area in the world today. Vedas and other Indian literature made frequent
references to wells, tanks, canals and dams and the responsibility of the community for their operation
and maintenance. The entire landscape in southern and central India are studded with tanks and weUs
some of which were built many centuries before the beginning of Christian era. In northern India there
are equally old small canals in the upper valleys of rivers. In the arid and semi-arid plains of the
perennial rivers of north Hke the Ganga and Indus, flood flows were diverted through inundation canals
for irrigation, while in the rainfall scanty south, water had to be stored in large tanks for domestic use.
While development of ground water through shallow wells was largely the result of individual private
effort, the surface water development for irrigation has been traditionally the result of community or state
effort. After independence it was soon realised that major storage works had to be undertaken to firm
up irrigation supplies from the run-of-the river schemes and also to generate power. Mul:tipurpose
reservoir projects were also taken up to include flood control benefits by providing flood storages.
1.4 In India irrigation projects are classified into three categories viz. major, medium and minor.
Projects which have a culturable command area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hactare are termed as major
projects those which have CCA of less than 10,000 hactare but more than 2,000 hactare are termed as
. . medium projects and those which have a CCA of 2000 hactare or less are known as minor projects.
;tinor projects have both surface and ground water as their source, while major and medium projects
exploit surface water resources. By and large, major and medium projects are constructed and operated ·
by Government, while minor schemes are owned and operated by both private and government agen­
·es. Among ground water schemes dugwel ls and shallow tubewells are privately owned whereas deep
"be ells are government owned. Surface lift irrigation schemes are operated both by government and
. . •ate agencies on a cooperative basis.
~. 5 e primary responsiblity for planning and implementation of minor irrigation programme is that .
or e 5 ate Governments. The Central Government provides assistance under various centrally spon­

6. sored schemes for accelerating the development of minor irrigation. Development of minor irrigation is
primarily achieved through individual and cooperative efforts with the help of institutional finance or
investment by the farmers from their own sources. The bulk of institutional finance is mobilised through
the Land Development Banks, Commercial Banks with refinance from National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD). Public sector outlays are limited to public tubewells, surface water
schemes, survey and investigation work and, giving subsidy to the farmers for installation of minor
irrigation works, pump sets and water saving devices like Drip/ sprinkler system.
1.6 Surface water lift irrigation schemes are playing a very useful role on sites where available surface
water cannot be used for irrigation through construction of flow irrigation schemes due to topographical
limitations. Investment on these schemes is comparatively less and these can be completed in short
duration.
1.7 Ground water development forms the major part of the minor irrigation programme and includes
construction of dugwells, dug-cum-bore wells,filter points, private shallow tube-wells and deep pub'lic
tubewells. It is essentially a people's programme implemented primarily through individual and coop­
erative efforts with finances obtained mainly from institutional sources.
2. INDIA'S WATER RESOURCES
2.1 OVERAll
Like in many other parts of the world, rainfall in India is unevenly distributed, both spatially and
temporarily. Mean annual rainfall varies from 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to over 11,000 mm at
Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. The incidence of rainfall is also very seasonal, occuring mainly during the
South-West Monsoon in most of the country, except Tamil Nadu, which also receives the North-East
Monsoon and the Western part of the Himalayas which receives significant winter precipitation.
The average annual rainfall received on the total geographical area of 329 million hectares(m ha)
is about 1170 mm, which corresponds to an annual precip'itation of 4000 cubic km, including snowfall.
Of this the seasonal rainfall is of the order of 3000 cubic km. The average flow in the river systems in
the country has been estimated to be 1880 cubic km, treating both surface and ground water as one
system. Over 90 percent of the annual runoff in peninsular rivers and over 80 percent of the runoff in
Himalayan rivers occur during the four monsoon months of June to September. Due to the limitations
of physiographic conditions and socio-political, environment, legal and constitutional constraints and
the technology of development available at present, the amount of water that can be put to beneficial
use is much less. As per the recent estimates made by the Central Water Commission, the utlisable water
from surface structures is about 690 cubic km. ..
2.2 GROUND WATER
Earlier,· wells used to be constructed and are even now being constructed on the basis of local
knowledge and not based on any assessment of ground water potential. Ground Water mapping and
ground water exploration were until recently sporadic and limited to specific areas. The Geological
Survey of India was initially responsible for systematic investigation and mapping of ground water in the
country as a whole.
Considerable work has been carried out by the Central Ground Water Board,State Ground .Water
Organisations, Universities and Research Institutes in the country for evolving the methodology for
ground water resources evaluation suited to the hydro-geological conditions existing in different parts
of the country. In 1982 the Government of India constituted the Ground Water Estimation Committee
2

7. ~
~ -­
to inter alia recommend a suitable methodology for estimation of ground water potential. The Central
Ground Water Board has recently assessed the ground water potential districtwise, adopting the meth­
odology recommended by the above Committee. According to their assessment the replenishable ground
water potential of the country is 452 cubic km.
2.3 Thus the total utilisable water rec;ources of India are 1142 cubic km, 690 cubic km from surface
sources and 452 cubic km from ground water.
3. IRRIGATION POTENTIAL OF INDIA
3.1 ULTIMATE IRRIGATION POTENTIAL
Ttte ultimate irrigation potential of the country has been estimated to be 113 m ha, comprising of
58 m ha from major and medium irrigation projects, 15 m ha from surface m inor irrigation schemes and
40 m ha (under revision) from ground water exploitation (Figure I),
The National perspective for Water Resources Development, having two components viz Hima­
layan Rivers Development and Peninsular Rivers Development for inter-basin transfer of waters, envis­
ages an additional benefit of 25 m ha by surface water and 10m ha by increased use of ground water,
which is expected to raise the ultimate irrigation potential from 113m ha to 148 m ha. However,
pending firming up of these estimates, the ultimate irrigation potential at present is considered as 113
m ha. '
MINOR (G.W.l
(40 m ha-under
rev,lslon)
MINOR (SURFACE)
MAJOR & MEDfUM
(58 m hal
(15 m hal
ULTIMATE IRRIGATION POTENTIAL - 113 m, ha. (under revision)
Figure I : - Ultimate Irrigation Potential of India.
IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED AND UTILISED
- : .' e time of launching of the First Five Year Plan in 1951, the gross irrigated area in the country
.:.:::. .&.:' m ha. The country assigned a very high priority to irrigation in the five year plans. As a resu·lt,
"-purpose and irrigation projects like the Bhakra Nangal in Punjab and Hirakud in Orissa were
' . ,' i h the rapid strides made in Irrigation development during the last four decades of planned
- ", ~ ~ t;~ ~ the irrigation potential created at the end of Annual Plan (1991-92) stood at 81.28 m ha.
: =: :- 5 3 ) .98 m ha is from major and 'medium projects 11.57 m ha from minor schemes using
3

8. surface water and 38.73 m ha from minor schemes using ground waters. Figure 2 shows the details of
potential created so far while the Planwise progress is depicted in Figure 3.
UNEXPlOITEO
.POTEtitJAi.
(31.72 :m hal MAJOR & MEDIUM
(38.98 m hal
MINOR (SURFACE)
(11.57 m hal
MINOR (C.W'>
(38.73 m hal
TOTAL IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED = 81.28 m. ha.
Figure 2 : - Irrigation Potential Created upto Annual Plan (1991-92)
M H
I E
L C
L T
I A
o R
N E ·
90
80
70
60
50 I
I
40
30
20
10
0
PREPLAN I II III ANNUAL IV V ANNUAL VI VII ANNUAL ANNUAL
UPTO (51·56) (56-61) (61·66) (66·69) (69·74) (74·78) (78·80l (80-85) (85-90) (90-91) (91-92) .
1951
PLAN
Figure 3 : - Irrigation Potential Created 'V the end of various Plans
4

9. Out of the 81.28 m ha of irrigated potential created up to the end of Annual Plan (1991-92) 73.07
m ha was utilised by that year. Of this 26.58 m ha comprised utilisation from major and medium
projects, 10.37 m ha from minor schemes using surface waters and balance 36.12 m ha from minor
schemes using ground water, as also shown in Figure 4.
(26.58 m hal
}<5(xxxxxxQ5< MAJOR & MEDIUM
MINOR (C.W.!
(36.12 m hal
MINOR (SURFACE)
(10.37 m hal
IRRI GATION POTENTIAL UTILISED = 73.07 m. ha.
Figure 4 : • Irrigation Potential Utilised upto Annual Plan (1991.92)
Thus of the 8.21 m ha lag in the utilisation of the created irrigation potential, 4.40 m ha (54 percent)
is under major and medium projects, 1.20 m ha (14 percent) under minor schemes using surface water
and balance 2.61 m ha (32 percent) under minor schemes using ground water. Figure 5 shows the
situation pictorially.
MAJOR & MEDIUM
MINOR (C.W')
(2.61 m hal
(4.40 m hal
MINOR (SURFACE)
(1.20 m hal
LAG IN ~TILISATION OF CREATED POTENTIAL = B.2 1 m. 'ha.
Figure 5 : • Lag in Utilisation of Created Potential upto Annual plan (1991.92)
5

10. •
A statement showing planw~se physical progress of irrigation development is given below.
GROWTH OF GROSS CUMULATIVE IRRIGATION POTENTIAL
(M. ha.)
YEAR MAJOR- MINOR TOTAL
MEDIUM Surface Ground Total
Pre-Plan 8.64 6.40 6.50 12.90 22.60
1951-56 11.12 I
1956-61 13.27 I 6.45 8.28 14.73 29.05
1961-66 15.50 I
-1966-69 - 17.0 I 6.51 12.50 19.02 37.10
1969-74 19.64 6.96 16.44 23.40 44.20
1974-78 23.65 7.50 19.80 27.30 52.02
1978-80 22.55 8.00 22.00 30.00 56.60
1980-85 27.70 9.70 27.82 37.52 67.52
1985-90 29.92 10.99 35.62 46.61 76.53
1990-91 30.36 11.27 37.15 48.42 78.78
1991-92 30.98 11.57 38.73 50.30 81.28
1992-97 36.07 13.10 47.91 61.01 97.08
(Target)
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6

11. 4. INVESTMENT IN IRRIGATION SECTOR
4_1 Large investment have been made for the development of irrigation during the various plan periods
io
as will be seen from Flgure-6.
50
45
R
U 40
P
35E
E
C 305 R
25T' O
, RH 20E0
SU 15
S
10A
N
D 5
0
PREPLAN I II III ANNUAL IV V ANNUAL VI VII ANNUAL
UPTO (51-56) (56-61) (61-66) (66-69) (69-74) (74-78) (78-80> (80-85) (85-90> (90-91)
1951
PLAN
Figure 6 : - Planwise Financial Expenditure on Irrigation in India
The following table gives the details of planwise investment made in the Irrigation Sector_
(Rs. Crore)
Period Plan Major/ Minor Total
Expdt. Medium Irrig.
(Plan) Plan Instnl. TOTAL Sector
1951-56 1360 380 66 neg. 66 44
1956-61 4672 380 142 19 161 541
1961-66 8577 581 328 115 443 1024
1966-69 6603 434 326 235 561 995
1969-74 15778 1237 513 661 1174 2411
1974-78 28811 2442 631 780 1411 3853
1978-80 22941 2056 497 490 987 3043
1980-85 109646 7531 1979 1438 3417 10948
1985-90 180000 11556 2805 3513 6318 17874
1990-91 61137 2565 832 921 1753 4318
1991-92 64698 2782 977 972 1849 4631
1992-97 434100 22214 5977 5119 11096 33510
(Outlay)
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12. 4.2 About 40% of plan expenditure and over 90% of institutional finance in the minor Irrigation Sector
is estimated to be the portion invested for ground water development. In addition, another approximately
30% of total investment in ground water sector is from private sources which is not included in the
above figures.
5. MINOR IRRIGATION - SURFACE WATER
5.1 SURFACE WATER SCHEMES - DEVELOPMENT
Minor surface water schemes occupy a conspicuous place in the context of irrigated agriculture in
the country, particularly in the undulating areas and the hilly regions. These provide the only means of
irrigation in several tracts which include the bulk of chronically drought affected areas and are labour
intensive and offer opportunities for rural employment. These are also of considerable help in recharging
meagre resources of ground water in the hard rock areas. The surface lift schemes also playa very useful
role on sites w~ere available surface water cannot be used for irrigation due to topographical limitations.
Investment on surface minor schemes is comparatively less and schemes can be completed very quickly.
Surface water minor irrigation schemes include small storage tanks owned by individuals or group
of farmers. These constitute the biggest item under minor surface water schemes. Pumpsets installed by
individuals or groups of farmers on surface water sources like tanks, small rivers and streams, are termed
as small lift irrigation schemes with commands of 2 to 20 ha on an average. Larger lift irrigation schemes
with commands from 20 to 2000 ha constructed by State Governments/Minor Irrigation Corporations
under the State Government, percolation tanks for the purpose of recharging ground water table, and
small diversion channels to divert the running water of streams and rivers in hilly areas, check dams and
anicuts are also included under these schemes.
Small hydro-electric schemes are also being constructed along with major power installations particularly
to meet with the energy demands in the isolated and remote areas of the hilly regions. The role of smal'l
hydro project is, however, complementary to the major hydro projects. The small hydro potential is
estimated to contribute to 6 per cent ofthe total ultimate hydro-power potential. About 1,300 physical
schemes have been identified in this sector with a total installed capacity of 1,200 MW. Out of this 108
schemes with installed capacity of about 200 MW are reported to be under operation and another 87
schemes with installed capacity of 200 MW were under construction in 1991.
5.2 IRRIGATION POTENTIAL - PROGRAMME AND ACHIEVEMENTS
Generally, Minor Irrigation programmes are implemented by a number of departments/
organisations under different developmental sectors such as Agriculture, Rural Development, Welfare,
etc. The development of the potential is achieved through individual and cooperative efforts. The
irrigation potential which was around 6.4 m ha at the beginning of First Plan has increased during the
plan periods and gone upto 11.57m ha. by the end of 1991-92, out of which the utilisation has been
10.37 m ha.
During the Eighth Plan in respect of surface water, renovation of old tanks and construction of new
ones have been given a bigger thrust and increased importance. External assistance is being taken for
accelerating new tank construction and modernisation of existing ones. During the Eighth Plan the
potential creation and utilisation through surface water minor irrigation schemes are proposed as 1.60 .
m ha and 1.10 m ha respectively.
In order to achieve both physical and financial targets and get the maximum benefit, the main
elements of the strategy for minor irrigation during Eighth Plan inter-alia include (i) encouragement to
repair and improvement of existing minor irrigation works as well as the development of new crops as
part of the integrated micro development projects (ii) priority to speedy completion of large number of·
ongoing surface water minor'trrigation schemes, (iii) encouragement to minor surface water lift irrigation
8

13. schemes both individual and community owned, (iv) introduction of the Command Area
Development(CAD) concept in large Minor Irrigation schemes above 500 ha or in a group of schemes
to make a contiguous block of 500 ha and above. (v)installation of drip/sprinkler irrigation system in
water scarce and drought prone areas, (vi) emphasis on conjunctive use of ground and surface water.
5.3 FINANCING OF THE PROGRAMMES
The outlays for the Minor Irrigation Programmes are being derived from the two sources namely,
Public Sector funds as part of State Plan Outlays and the Institutional sources such as Land Development
Banks, Co-operative Banks, Rural Banks and Commercial Banks with refinance facilities from National
Bank for A.griculture and Rural Development (NABARD). Under the plan outlay, funds from the Central
sector are also available in the shape of Centrally sponsored schemes on matching basis.
Surface flow schemes are mostly financed from the public sector funds as part of State Plan outlays.
Only in case of surface lift irrigation schemes being constructed by State Corporations, the financing is
from Institutional sources. In addition to this there are also investments made by the cultivators from their
own resources.
In order to provide additional resources to the State Governments the Ministry of Water Resources
has obtained external assistance from several agencies.
5.4 CONSTRAINTS IN DEVELOPMENT OF MINOR IRRIGATION PROGRAMME
The Surface Minor Irrigation schemes, inspite of their beirTg quick maturing, face a number of
problems and constraints in their development which are given below:
(i) Data Base
As a part of various developmental programmes, innumerable minor irrigation schemes are being
implemented every year. The old structures are going out of use due to one reason or the other. In the
States there are several agencies dealing with Minor Irrigation Programmes. Due to the multiplicity of
the developmental sectors and the department concerned there is no proper coordination to compile
data on these schemes. The absence of a reliable sound data base is a constraint for efficient planning
and implementation of these programmes.
(ij) Technical Problems
Inadequacy of proper norms and criteria in regard to irrigation planning, and design of works,
paucity of hydrological data, selection of projects on adhoc basis, lack of technical guidance to farmers
etc. are the constraints in proper planning and implementation.
(iii) Problem Faced in Tan1k Irrigation
Tanks occupy a very important place under the surface water minor irrigation works especially in
the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Orissa. Tank
irrigation has however not received the required priority and attention even though they can give speedy
benefits with higher rate of return and low investment. According to the land use statistics net area
irrigated by tanks has not kept pace with other sources like canal and well irrigation.
While in 1962-63 the area under tank irrigation reached all time high of 4.78 M ha, it came down
to 3.07 M ha. in 1985-86 inspite of the fact that large number of new tanks were added during this
period. A review of net area irrigated by tanks in the E.ghth Plan, leading states shows that there was
considerable decrease in net area irrigated in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Orissa.
This indicates that there are constraints in the upkeep of the tanks, like heavy siltation, encroach­
ment and inadequate maintenance. The location of tanks/small storages also needs to be carefully
•
9

14. decided as evaporation losses from these, due to lesser depths and more water spread, are high. In places
where evaporation is high, but tanks are necessarily to be constructed, inspite of use of evaporatarder's
cost economics, would need to be considered to conserve water.
(iv) Operation and Maintenance
Inadequate provision of funds for operation and maintenance of minor surface water schemes is
one of the main reasons for deterioration of the structures.
(v) Power Availability
The farmers in many area are loosing confidence in the electric supply system. The minor irrigation
programmes suffer mainly due to the problem of erratic power supply, power cuts during peak irrigation
season, lack of power supply schedule etc.
There is problem of lack of coordination between the State Electricity Boards(SEBs) and Irrigation
Departments. Besides this, high cost of input materials, inadequate back up of sub-transmission systems
and difficult financial position of SEBs is major constraint in the development of minor irrigation.
According to 1991-92 data the SEB's were generating power at 1,20.6 paise per unit while the realisation
from sales to Agriculture sector was only 12.6 paise per unit resulting in a subsidy of the order of Rs.
6,200 crores annually. The loss on this account is not being compensated to SEBs by the State Gov­
ernments. Slow rate of energisation of pumpsets over an installed minor irrigation unit is another
constraint and lack of technical guidance to farmers is another problem.
The high level of overdues in some of the States is most critical problem being faced by the
financial institutions.
(vi) Lack of Training
Lack of proper training for officers, farmers and staff connected with planning, operation, and
monitoring of Minor Irrigation works is also one of the constraints in this sector.
5.5 STRATEGIES PLANNED AND MEASURES INITIATED
Surface Minor Irrigation Programme is predominently a Government programme. However, some
of the works are installed by farmers with the help of institutional finance, government subsidy and
farmers own savings. In a number of cases, the installati,on of Minor Irrigation schemes by farmers does
not remain viable due to small holdings and farmers hesitate in availing of bank credit. The small and
marginal farmers are being provided Government subsidy to mobilise bank credit for Minor Irrigation
programme.
Subsidies provided under various sector to small and marginal farmers through centrally sponsored
schemes operated by different Central Departments are:­
(i) .Assistance to Small and Marginal Farmers for Increasing Agricultural Production
The scheme was initiated by Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation in 1983-84. The disbursement
of subsidy is made at the rate of 25% for small farmers, 33 1/3% for marginal farmers and 50% for ST
farmers (small and marginal both). The community irrigation projects by State Governments were also
undertaken under the scheme. The Government of India and the State Governments shared the subsidy
amount on 50:50 basis.
(ij) Integrated Rural Development Programme
The scheme is operated by the Ministry of Rural Development under which subsidy is provided to
selected poorest families of a village for increasing their earning. Minor Irrigation schemes are also being
taken up under the programme for which 25% subsidy for small farmers, 33 1/3% for marginal farmers
and 50% for tribal farmers are available without any ceiling Limit. The amount of subsidy is shared
equally between the centre aliKl the state.
10

16. (iii) Jawahar Rozgar Yojna
The scheme is being operated from 1989-90 by Ministry of Rural Development in which Nationall Rural
Employment Programme and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme schemes of Rural De­
velopment Department have been merged. The expenditure under the programme is shared between the
Centre and the States on 80:20 basis. The District Rural Development Agencies, Zila Parishad and
Panchayat can take up minor irrigation programmes like wells, new village tanks, renovation of old
tanks,etc.
(iv) Drought Prone Area Programme
This programme started as Integrated Area Development Programme(lADP) in 1973-74. It aims at
the development of productive use of water resources in drought prone areas. The funds under the
scheme are shared by the Centre and the States on 50:50 basis. The rates of subsidy are same as for
IADP. ..
(v) Installation of Wind MiI'Is and Solar Pumps
The Department of Non-Conventional Energy sources, Ministry of Energy under the demonstration
programme installed wind pumps at the sites of beneficiaries including small and marginal farmers, free
of cost with f'inancial participation of local expenditure on civil works, storage tanks, etc. by them.
Non-conventional Energy Sources based technologies such as solar photovoltaic (SPY) water pump­
ing systems, wind pumps and biomass gasifiers are technically proven and are considered to have the
potential of meeting the irrigation and drinking water requirements.
Presently Spy water pumping systems are being utilised for lifting water from shallow depths in
unelectrified and remote areas.
Subsidy at the rate of Rs. 170 per watt for the systems with a PY array capacity from 200 Wp to
1300 Wp and a soft loan at an annual interest rate of 5% payable in 10 annual instalments subject to
a maximum amount of Rs. 80,000 for the unsubsidised part of the price of the system are available to
the user for purchasing the system directly from the supp'liers. The Scheme is providing a D.C. surface
pumps, submersible pumps and floating pumps and A.c. submersible pumps.
The Government of India is popularising wind pumping system by providing cost sharing contri­
bution of nearly 50% of the hardware cost.
In addition to these subsidy schemes, the Ministry of Water Resources also initiated the following
Centrally Sponsored Schemes to provide necessary assistance to the State Governments for accelerating
the pace of development.
(i) Strengthening of Minor Irrigation Organisations in the States/UTs
The implementation of this scheme started in 1976-77. Under this scheme, Central assistance on
50:50 sharing basis was provided to States/UTs for the purchase of machinery and equipment for Ground
Water Development. Central assistance was also provided for purchase of hydrological and
hydrogeological instruments with a view to ensure better and economic designs for surface water minor
irrigation schemes. Considering the inadequate infrastructure available in North-Eastern States, assistance
for staff was also specifically provided for planning Minor Irrigation schemes during Seventh Plan. As
per the decision of National Development Council, the scheme has been discontinued from Central
sector since 1992-93.
(ii) Encouraging Irrigation through the use of Sprinkler, Drip systems, Hydrams, Water Turbines, man
or animal operated Pumps
This scheme was launched in 1982-83. Under the scheme, subsidy was made available to small,
marginal and other farmers during Sixth Plan period tor installation of energy and water saving devices.
The subsidy is shared equally by the Centre and the State Government!> in the ratio 50:50. The respective
11
•

17. State Govternments are responsible for installation, operation and maintenance of these devices includ­
ing its civil works and anciliary structures.
The scheme was continued in the Seventh Plan period with some modification. However, it did
not get good response as it was limited to small and marginal farmers who cannot afford these systems
even at subsidised cost. The Ministry of Water Resources is not operating this scheme from 1992-93.
(iii) Rationalisation of Minor Irrigation Statistics
This scheme was introduced in 1987-88 for creation of Statistical Cells in the nodal Departments
of the States for collection and compilation of minor irrigation statistics. Under this scheme 100%
Central assistance is provided to States/UTs for deploying the staff in the Statistics Cells created by them.
The objective of the scheme is to create a sound data base for future planning and policy decisions in
minor irrigation sector. During the Seventh Plan, 13 States, could create Statistical Cells while in the
remaining States, the cells could not be created due to administrative delays. The scheme has been
sanctioned for continuation during Eighth Plan and is likely to be taken up by al~ the States/UTs during
this period. The Plan outlay for the scheme during 1993-94 is Rs. 4.3 crores.
(iv) Census of Minor Irrigation Schemes
Reliable data relating to existing Minor Irrigation schemes is necessary for efficient planning and
implementation. Accordingly, a scheme for conducting the Census of Minor Irrigation Schemes was
introduced in 1986-87. Under this scheme 100% Central assistance was provided to the states for
making payment to the staff who conducted the census in the States. The work of Census has been
completed with 1986-87 as the reference year.
(v) Performance Evaluation Study of Minor Irrigation Programmes in the States
Huge Hlvestmenis comprising Plan outlays, credit from banking institutions and farmers'own savings
are being made for {'he deveiopment of Minor Irrigation. Although tangible benefits in the shape of
additional food grain: production have been obvious, how the programme has helped in raising the
quality of life in fUlai areas and how far it has created additional employment facilities thereby checking
the migration of rural population to urban areas is required to be assessed reliably. It is also necessary
to knovlJ precisely the real constraints and shortcomings in the programme implementation.
Accordingly; evaluation study of Minor Irrigation Programme has been taken up since 1991-92 at
an estimated cost of Rs.1.3 crores. The study is being conducted in selected States comprising 14
region'>.
5.6 PERSPECTIVE FOR DEVELOPMENT
tn order to achieve the optimum development and efficient utilisation of the surface water Mino
Irrigation schemes emphasis is required on the following aspects:
OJ To Achieve the Targets for Creation of Additional Irrigation Potential
The construction of the on-going schemes in all the States be expedited. Construction of new tank9
should also be taken up in a big way in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
In hilly areas of Northern and North-eastern regions of the country, a programme for constructio
of diversion canals and iift schemes on perennial rivers be implemented.
(i j) Renovation and Modernisation
A number of 'kuhis' in the hilly States have lost much of their useful capacity for irrigation becau
of proper maintenance, Modernisation of these kuhls should be taken up by State Irrigation Depa
ments in a phased manner.
12

18. -.......

19. A large number of tanks have lost their irrigation capacity due to siltation and lack of repair and
maintenance. A big thrust has to be given for their renovation and modernisation, desilting the tanks
and getting external aid to the maximum extent. A Tank Irrigation Authority if set up would be
useful for the purpose.
(iii) Conservation of Water and Improved Irrigation Management
Use of pipe distribution systems preferably PVC pipes, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods spe­
cially in drought prone and arid areas to be encouraged by giving liberal subsidies.
In commands of tanks and surface water lift irrigation improved irrigation management practices
should be taken up including On Farm Development works, construction of water courses upto the
individual holding to ensure more expeditious and efficient utilisation of water.
Lining of water courses especially using polythylene fillm should be encouraged to minimise water
loss.
(iv) Improving Operation and Maintenance
In case of tanks maintained by the State Departments the annual maintenance funds should be
suitably increased in view of the price increase and taking into consideration the actual requirement
for proper sustained maintenance.
Enactment of a suitable legislation for recovering water charges from beneficiaries of tank irrigation.
Formation of Water Users' Association to handle job of operation, maintenance, and carrying out
On Farm Development works on priority basis.
Expedite implementation of approach of Command Area Development programmes in Surface
Minor Irrigation works having command of more than 500 ha to start with.
(v) Technology and Technology Inputs
Need for widening the of hydrometeorological net work for surface flow, sediment and evaporation '
data.
Standardisation of procedure and proformae for investigations.
Preparing technical criteria and guidelines for design of works and manuals.
Organising short term training courses.
(vi) Accelerated Development of Minor Irrigation in Drought Prone, Tribal and other Difficult Areas
In drought prone areas, stress should be laid to store and conserve rain water, dependability criteria
for tanks may be reviewed, construction of percolation tanks, rain water harvesting structures I,ike
village ponds etc. be taken in large numbers.
Development of Minor Irrigation in the tribal areas be encouraged by formulating new schemes after
proper surveys, completion of on-going schemes, providing more funds and subsidy to bring more
cultivated area under irrigation.
In hilly areas of Northern Himalayan Region, Western and Eastern ghats and North Eastern States
- a complete survey of available water resources should be done. Master Plans for deveiopment of
water resources including drinking water need to be prepared.
The planning of watershed development involves an indirect approach depending lipon physi­
ographic and hydrologic characteristics which include construction of soil conservation works on
lands, construction of structures like check dams, nalla bunding, contour bunds, gully plugging,
13

20. percolation tanks, development of rainwater, water harvesting and construction of wells etc. The
people's participation and involvement of voluntary organisation in watershed development
programme has been emply demonstrated by the success achieved in the villages of Ralagaon
Shindi (Maharashtra) Rendhar in Bundelkhand region, Adgaon Khurd in Aurangabad district and
Sukhomajri near Chandigarh. For replication and implementation of such programmes on large
scale factors to be taken into consideration would be the local agro-climatic and geo-physical
conditions and peoples' participation and cooperation. But the experience gained in above men­
tioned cases, if followed, wherever feasible could go a long way in achieving the proper manage­
ment of land and water resources through minor works at lesser costs.
(vii) Encouraging Farmers' Participation and Constitution of Irrigation Cooperative/Water Users' Asso­
ciation
Encourage farmers to participate right from planning stage and subsequently make decisions about
production ,inputs, operation and maintenance of farm irrigation system.
Tank irrigation, water lift irrigation schemes and distribution system should be managed by farmers
by constituting Co-operatives;Water Users' Association.
The Government has been advocating the setting up of cooperatives for management of tanks and
other lift irrigation works. Wherever beneficiaries have shown the interest, the same has been
considered by the Government and procedure evolved in handling over such works to the benefi­
ciary societies.
(viii) Developing Sound and Reliable Data Base
A large number of minor irrigation works are being installed every year under various developmen­
tal sectors such as Agriculture, Rura,1 Development, Tribal Develolpment apart from Irrigation. It is
essential to have proper accounting and recording of the benefits thereon.
Statistical cells in some States have already been created for compilation of minor irrigation
statistics. Creation of such cells in other states need to be expedited.
6 MINOR IRRIGATION - GROUND WATER
6.1 GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT
Ground Water has been in use in India at least from the time of the Vedas which mention irrigation
from wells. Kautilya's writings also mention about wells worked with machines. Use of ope~ wells for
domestic purposes and irrigation continued during the medieval period. Towards the end of the 19th
century open wells accounted for about 30% of the total irrigation in the country. The Irrigation
Commission, 1903 recommended a programme for irrigating an additional area of 2.6 M ha through
wells. Improvements were made in the construction of water lifting device? The first large scale survey
and development of ground water were taken up in 1934 with a project for constructing about 1500
deep public tubewells in the Gangetic basin in Uttar Pradesh. After independence large scale ground
water exploration and well construction programmes were taken up.
Ground Water in view of its high dependability, easy availability with extensive range of develop­
ment possibilities tapping shallow and deep aquifers in the consolidated, semi consolidated and uncon­
solidated rock formations, capability of being tapped by small capacity wells permitting individual
ownership even by weaker sections of society, assumed vital importance to meet the nee'ds of people
for drinking, industrial and irrigational purposes. Currently, the strategy for development of this resource
is based on using the dynamic component adopting safe yield concept. There are, however, several
management options to put the available ground water resources to optimum use such as temporary use
of static ground water component to cope up with drought situations, enhancing natural recharge
potential through rainwater harvesting, soil conservation methods and artificial recharge techniques, its
14

21. ·.

22. use in conjunction with surface water to provide decongestion in water logged areas and stabilise
irrigation potential in arid and semi-arid areas.
Central Ground Water Board, the apex organisation for ground water survey, exploration, devel­
opment and management, had brought out in 1976, a Hydrological Map of India on 1:5 Million scale,
for guiding the ground water development in the country which has further been revised and issued in
1989.
6.2 GROUND WATER RESOURCES AND POTENTIAL THEREFROM
The Task Force on ground water resources constituted by the Planning Commission in the year
1972 utilised the figure of 26.5 m ha m as a tentatively accepted figure for ultimate potential from
ground water development.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) worked out the ultimate irrigation potential from
ground water as 40 m ha based on utilisable ground water resource of 26 m ha m. This was based on
an average 0.65 ha m of ground water to irrigate a cropped ha compared to 0.90 ha m from surface
water as conveyance losses 'are higher in later case.
A High Level Committee known as Ground Water Over Exploitation Committee constituted in 1979
recommended definite norms for ground water resource estimati,on. Based on these norms the gross
ground water recharge was assessed as 46.79 m.ha.m.and the net recharge as 32.49 m.ha.m.
The Central Ground Water Board also reassessed the utilisable ground water resources in the
country as 41.85 m.ha.m. Reserving about 2.50 m.ha.m. for domestic and industrial purposes, 39.35
m.ha.m. of ground water has been assessed for irrigation purposes.
Subsequently, based on the norms and guidelines laid down by the Ground Water Estimation
Committee(1984) the annual replenishable ground water resource of the country worked out to 45.33
m.ha.m. Keeping a provision of 15% for drinking, industrial and other uses the annual utilisable ground
water resources for irrigation is 38.51 m.ha.m. The ultimate irrigation potentiall in terms of area based
on the statewise assessment is under further review. It may also be mentioned that while reviewing the
figure of ultimate ground water potential availability of land for utlisation of ground water would have
to be kept in view.
6.3 CONSTRAINTS IN GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT
When seen for the country as a whole there is considerab1e ground water sti,lI required to be
developed. However, when viewed critically, a number of regional disparities in the development of
ground water. resources are apparent. In the Eastern States, the ground water potential is high but the
development is less due to several constraints including low demand. Whereas in States like Punjab,
Haryana and Gujarat, due to high demand, ground water development has taken p:lace in some areas.
The problems and constraints in the development of ground water resources in the country are briefly
discussed below:
(i) Intensive Development
Intensive development of ground water in some areas has led to rather critical situation of over
exploitation which results in problems like progressive lowering of ground water levels, and consequent
decline in the yield and productivity of wells, increased cost of lifting of water due to declining water
levels, drying of springs and shallow dug wells, reduction in the free flow shortage in water supply,
intrusion of sea water along the coast and even local' subsidence of land at some places.
In the coastal region of Saurashtra, Gujarat increased groundwater development has resulted in
saline water ingression and deterioration of ground water quality, further accentuated due to percolation
of tidal waters. Excessive use of saline water in-turn adversely affected the soil structure and salt balance
of the soil, causing damage to the soils, reduction in crop yields etc. In Mehsana area of Gujarat, over
15

23. exploitation of ground water has resulted in progressive decline in water levels in the phreatic and semi­
confined aquifers in the Central and South Central parts of the area. Similar problem exists in the Union
Territory of Chandigrah, the Kuru'kshetra area of Haryana and in some pockets in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Karnataka.
As on January, 1992 out of the 4568 Blocks in the country (excluding Gujarat & Maharashtra) 183
Talukas in Gujarat and 1481 watersheds in Maharashtra, thEre are 257 Biocks (28 in Andhra Pradesh,
24 in Haryana, 9 in Karnataka, 3 in Madhya Pradesh, 69 in Punjab, 63 in Rajasthan, 43 in Tamil Nadu,
17 in Uttar Pradesh and 1 in West Bengal, 18 Talukas in Gujarat and 34 watersheds in Maharashtra
are classified as Dark or Critical where the projected net extraction in 5 year is in excess of 85% of the
utilisabie ground water resources for irrigation. Similarly, 361 Blocks, 14 Talub.s (Gujarat) and 57
watersheds (Maharashtra) are classIfied as Grey or Semi-critical where the projects net extraction in 5
year is between 65 and 85% of the utilisable ground water resource for irrigation. In the critical areas
further development is not advisable and in the areas tending to cautious approach has to be made for
further development. Detailed micro-level studies are required to be carried out in these areas and
adequate steps to regulate and manage the ground water resources of these Critical/Semi-critical areas
have to be taken up.
(ii) Areas with High Potential but less Development
In the Eastern and North-Eastern States, though the ground water potential is high, the level of
development is quite low due to several constraints/factors. These constraints/factors may be classified
as (a) demand related factors i.e. high precipitation, low irrigation requirement, avai!ability of canal
Water at low prices, low return on irrigation, etc. and (b) supply related factors i.e. limited and erratic
power supply, Small land hol'dings non-availability of credit facility,etc.
(iii) Development in Hard Rock Areas
Ground Water development in the Peninsular States which are predominantly occupied by the hard
rocks are beset with many constraints such as limited availability of the resources, localised availability
due to heterogenity and discontinuity of aquifers, etc.
In case of hard rock areas, the post monsoon rate of recession of the water level is quite fast in
the beginning for a period of one or two months after the peak. However, due to less demand for water
during this period, the resources availlable may not therefore, be fully utilised. Some of the deep fracture
zones are good aquifers but their aerial extent and potential are limited. Analysis of pumping tests on
wells tapping such zones showed that the specific capacity of these wells declines rapid llY after a certain
period of pumping indicating limited storage conditions. Caution should be exercised while developing
such aquifer zones for irrigation.
The deep fracture zones in these hard rock areas get recharged through the top weathered and
fracture zones and any major exploitation programme of these zones effect the water levels in the
shallow zones. Modern techniques including remote sensing, ground geophysics, lineament mapping are
being employed for location of successful sites for wells. Well improvement techni,ques like blasting with
explosives, hydrofracturing are being utilised in order to obtain higher yields from borewells.
The dug wells in hard rock terrain area are the main ground water structures. Their principal
advantage is that they are ch8ap and do not require much skill to construct and in their simplest form
can be owned by individuals. Their design though have undergone considerable change, has further
scope for improvement. Based on the hydrological properties of aquifers and required discharge, appro­
priate design of dug wells can be recommended to avoid over-investment.
(iv) Development in Coastal Areas
Extensive surveys and exploration activities over the years, have revealed that existence of large
fresh ground water resources in the Coastal region of the country. These ground water reservoirs, each
16

24. having peculiar hydrogeologic framework, offers their own set of requirements to be met before devel­
opment plans are evolved. Almost every where the fresh water and saline water systems in the sub­
surface co-exist in a characteristic hydro-dynamic balance which merits careful consideration. Therefore,
ground water, resource in the coastal region should be developed cautiously with due regard to the fresh
water/salt water interface, after carefully examining the combination of options available.
The National Water Policy (1987) clearly states that "Over exploitation of groundwater should be
avoided near the coast to prevent ingress of sea water into sweet water aquifers".
(v) Development in Hilly Regions
The ground water in hilly regions is normally harnessed through natura! springs. These are location
specific and do not cater to the needs of distant areas. Some of Himalayan; Sub-Himalayan and other
hilly areas with substantial rainfall are also water scarcity areas during tiO~-rnOfY;OOr;;C periods. Ground
water development in these areas is a difficult proposition due to unfavourabk topography. However,
the high elevation fractured controlled aquifer system on proper identification and development open
up a' potential source of water supply. Studies are needed for precise delineation and mode of devel­
opment of these aquifers.
(vi) Development in Oceanic Islands
Islands present very specific fresh water management problems which need to be solved in a limited
space. The oceanic islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep require specific ground water
development strategy. The Andaman and Nicobar islands are characterised by rugged topography criss
crossed by creeks. The basic volcanic rocks in South and Middle Andamans are suitable for ground water
development through borewells. In other areas, the salinity problems are quite prevalent in sedimentary
formations. The Lakshadweep island on the other hand is characterised by flat topography with gentle
slopes towards sea. The rainfall in the island is quite high but the hydrogeological situation does not
permit large scale ground water storage. The ground water development in the island need a cautious
approach. Care needs to be taken not to disturb the delicate fresh water-salt water balance by excessive
ground water development.
(vii) Disparity in Water Rates
The differential water rates between surface water and ground water system create a disparity
wherein a farmer using ground water has to pay more than the user of surface water which is highly
subsidised. The National Water Policy(1987) has emphasised that water rates for surface and ground
water should be rationalised with due regard to the interest of small and marginal farmers. The higher
water rates and investments from individual" for installations of ground water structures sometimes act
as constraints for ground water development.
(viii) Power AvailabHity Constraints
For optimal development of ground water resources, power availability for required period is
essential. During the period of drought when both moisture stress and power crunch become inescap­
able, to overcome adverse situation, maximising of ground water exploitation is extensively organised
and 8-10 hours/day of power supply is required to be ensured as a policy to all irrigation pumps sets
besides stepping up of pump set energisation programme. Dedicated Power supply for ground water
development is required to be considered.
(ix) Socio - Economic Aspects
The ground water development is by and large through private individuals. The institutional ar­
rangement for ground water development and utilisation has become one of the important aspects i,n
the total strategy of promotion of ground water development. The criteria for making choice amongst
the various arrangements i.e. State owned or cooperative managed are efficiel1cy and equity. The
17

25. measures often u~ed for efficiency are capacity utilisation extraction viability and water control exercised
by the users. In equity one looks for who benefits for use of ground water either through its sale or use
in agriculture. The ownership of wells and pumps and access to water including ability to buy water
are concern of equity.
In case of ground water sector the consumer is supposed to pay the charges as decided by the State
Electricity Boards. As is well known such charges have an element of subsidy since the generating cost
of power as well as its transmission to the point of use is not specifically accounted for. Normally the
ground water infrastructure has also lesser span of life than that of surface structure and therefore, their
rate of depreciation is more and consequently their O&M charges are higher.
The choice in institution is between private and public ownership of wells. Though as per eco­
nomic evaluation the tubewells owned by private individuals are more expensive than deep tubewells
in terms of capital and running cost per unit of water, the actual management operation and mainte­
nance leaves much scope for improvement. The drawback of private ownership of groundwater devel­
opment is that it will deny access to groundwater for smaller farmers who cannot invest in wells. It
further accentuates the disparities which already exist in rural areas as a result of unequal land holding.
The alternative to individual ownership is cooperative wells, with active outside intervention from Non­
Government Organisations and Government. The cooperative effort can hdp in bringing efficiency and
equity in groundwater development.
Ground Water sales have become quite common in many parts of country. In water stress regions,
water markets are flourishing. Though water sales provide non- well- owning small and marginal farmers
access to groundwater but the costs are higher than canal water or water from puhlic and cooperative
wells. In the extreme water trading situation, exploitation of non well owning farmer cannot be avoided
in absence of suitable regulation and administrative measure. There is thus a need to provide proper
administrative measures in such areas to check not only over exploitation of ground water resource but
to bring social equity also.
6.4 STRATEGIES PLANNED AND MEASURES INITIATED
Over the years, rapid strides have been made in India to mould the availability to match country's
manifold water demands. One of the most outstanding achievement of the post-independence era has
been the attainment of self sufficiency and export capability in food grains through green revolution.
Extension of irrigation facilities more than three folds, during this period has played a crucial role in
scaling this achievement.
However, still a greater part of the country depends on rainfed crop. Failure of monsoon, once too
often, exposes our preparedness to face the damaging effects of drought. Events have proved the
sustaining capability of ground water supplies under periods of moisture stress. Ground water plays a
dominant role in minimising the degradation of vegetation and consequential socio-economic problems.
The planning policy for irrigation development has resulted in (i) waterlogging and salinization in some
canal commands,(ii) inadequacy and unreliability of surface water during peak demand periods (iii)
ground water overdraft situation causing lowering of water table and (iv) ingress of sea water in coastal
areas in fresh water aqUifers. Conjunctive use of surface and ground water system combines the advan­
tage of ground water storage with surface water system and serves as both a remedial and corrective
measure and efficient water management and use.
In view of the above, there is great need for advanced techniques of management for more rational
utilisation of ground water especially for irrigation.
(i) Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water
Conjunctive and integrated use is taken to imply the coordinated and harmonious development of
the two sources with the sole purpose of maximising agricultural production. For optimum production,
18

26. the crop must be provided requisite quantity of water at various critical stages of growth. For various
crops with different base and critical periods total requirements are often difficult to meet either
fromsurfaceor ground water individually.
The conjunctive use of surface and ground water provides a range of possibilities (a) availability
of adequate water supplies when supplemented by ground water any point of time, (b) advance irrigation
in a season prior to availability of surface water and (c)to give late waterings when surface water is not
available.
For areas having saline ground water, management of surface water and ground water resources
call for careful considerations. Proper management helps the situation in the following ways:
(a) during low rainfall period ground water can augment irrigation supplies.
(b) surface conveyance system is available to ground water supplies.
(c) for blending of brackish ground water with fresh canal water and
(d) permit better flexibility in cropping pattern.
The Indian scenario of conjunctive use programmes suggests that what is being practised in the
country at the moment does not really envisage the optimal use of both surface and groundwater
resources. Most of the major irrigation projects have been designed, keeping in view the surface water
. inputs and utilisation of ground water is being thought of only after problems of water logging,
salinisation etc. are caused in the canal commands. The independent development of groundwater is
mostly through private sector participation and is found to be haphazard and unplanned. In most cases,
independent development of a sub-resource of the overall water system, has been shown to be con­
strained by factors which conjunctive development can reduce or eliminate.
The National Water Policy (1987) which directs that both surface and ground water sould be
viewed as an integrated resource and should be developed conjunctively in coordinated manner and
their use should be envisaged right from the project planning stage.
Thus there is urgent need to translate the conjunctive use concepts into action for better planning
and management of our scarce water resources. All projects for conjunctive use of surface and ground
water should be deve1loped, operated and maintained from project funds, for optimal water resources
development.
Keeping this urgent need in view, Central Water Commission has recently brought out 'Draft
guidelines for planning of conjunctive use of surface and ground water in irrigation projects'. These
guidelines discuss the methodology for deciding quantity of ground water withdrawal for irrigation use
and alternative strategies for developing irrigation plans in a particular command area depending on the
local topographic and geohydrologic conditions. It also discuss the administrative difficulties and policy
alternatives about the role of private and Government initiative in developing conjunctive use.
Finalisation and adoption of these guidelines would lead to better planning of future major projects.
At present, the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is being extensively planned in the ­
commands of the major irrigation projects in the Indo-Gangetic plains of northern India. In this area,
alongwith major canal systems, large scale development of ground water has taken place during last 10­
15 years. Shallow tubewells goind down to a depth of about 30-35 m. and with discharge capacity of
25.3 m3
per hour have come up in thousands as a means of supplementing irrigation water supplies
in the canal commands. This type of conjunctive use has helped considerably in preventing waterlogging
and' soil salinity alongwith providing assured irrigation water supply for high yielding varieties of crops.
In addition to construction of private shallow tubewells in large numbers for conjunctive use deep
pubric tubewells are also being installed by the State Government/Public Corporation in river basins
outside canal commands with a view to providing irrigation for areas not covered by canal irrigation
and also to help small farmers who can not own individual tubewells.
19
•

27. Recently, augmentation tubewells have also been constructed for increasing the supplies in the
canals during summer months. Such constructions have been taken up in the States of U.P. , Punjab
and Haryana. To increase the intensity of irrigation and encourage conjunctive use, constructlon of
Kharif channels is also proposed. During the monsoon months these channels will get water from the
rivers for irrigating the rainy season crops. In winter and summer months these will be fed by the ground
water through construction of augmentation tubewells along these channels. The ground water with­
drawals made in summer and winter months will be compensated by extra recharge during the monsoon .
period throughout these channels.
(ii) Artificial Recharge of Ground Water
In certain high demand areas where ground water development has already reached a critical stage,
the problems generally being faced are two-fold i.e. on the one hand the demand outstrips the supply
situation and on the other, declining ground water level increases pumping lifts and necessitates deep­
ening of already existing structures. Urgent steps are called for augmentation of the ground water
resource potential in such area to arrest the declining trend of the ground water level and reverse it if
possible. Artificial recharge involves augmenting the natural movement of surface water into under­
ground formations by some method of construction, by spreading of water or by artificially changing
natural conditions. For handling these problems, a comprehensive and detailed information on the
geological and hydrologicj situation is necessary for recharge measures.
In recent years, studies carried out in Gujarat identified the problems of regional decline of ground
water levels both in the phreatic and the first confined aquifer system in the Mehsana area. These
problems were also identified in the Chandigarh area of the Union Territory, the Kurukshetra area of the
Haryana State, and in the hard rock areas in Noyil, Ponnani and Vattamalai Karai river basins of Tamil
Nadu and Kerala. In these areas detailed and specific investigations indicated that ground water re­
sources cou~d be augmented through artificial recharge in the hard rock areas as well as soft rock areas.
Since the problem is site specific, the methodology adopted is according to prevailing hydrogeologic
situations.
Quite many areas have already been identified which require artificial recharge measures. In other
areas where there is intensive ground water development, it is likely that similar situations may arise in
future due to ever increasing demand on ground water supply. The proper approach to meet the above
situations should be two folld (a) operational (b) exploratory. Under category (a) will com8 such areas
where problems have been identified already in detail. In such areas artificial recharge projects would
be taken up for implementation on the basis of the results and experience gained. Under the category
(Ia) would fall such areas where the problem are likely to mainfest in foreseable future where detailed
studies would be undertaken for exploring the possibilities of augmenting the ground water resources
through artifiicial means and determining the methodology appropriate to the area.
A national level centrally sponsored scheme for taking up pilot operational recharge projects in 200
Grey, Dark and Overexploited blocks has been prepared for implementation during the Eighth Plan. This
scheme is estimated to cost Rs. 810 million with Rs.420 million as central share. Under the scheme
construction of 600 spreading basins, 200 percolation tanks and 1040 sub surface dykes is envisaged.
These projects will act as fore runners for large scale operational projects for artificial recharge of ground
water in the critical areas.
Watershed treatment measures such as construction of Percolation tanks, check dams, gully plugs;
earthen/masonary 'Bandharas' across nalas, afforestation, contour bunding etc., increases the recharge
to the ground water. These measures have resulted in increase in the availability of ground water
enabling construnion of additional wells and leading to increased agricultural productivity. .
During the last decade 316 Percolation tanks and 691 check dams were constructed in Andhra
Pradesh and 80% of these structures were constructed in the four chronically drought affected districts
of Rayalaseema regions, mostly underlain of hard rocks, where they were needed most to increase
20

28. availability of the ground water resource. More than 7000 percolation tanks have been constructed in
Maharashtra, in the drought prone areas, after the severe drought of 1971-72. A study on the effective­
ness of these percolation tanks showed that the ground water recharge through these tanks is upto 50%
of the stored water.
Underground 'Bandhara' is an underground structure put across a nalla bed to function as a barrier
to check the ground water movement, resulting in additional recharge. Several such structures have been
constructed in various parts of Maharashtra. Similarly, sub-surface dams/dykes constructed in Kerala
helped to increase the availability of ground water.
(iij) Use of Non-conventional Energy Sources for Lifting Water
The conventional sources of energy for lifting water from wells for irrigation are (i) manual and
animals (ij) electricity and (iii) oils (Diesel; kerosene etc.) . Animals are used mostly for lifting water from
wells with rahat, bucket wheel etc. where water requirements are small. Electricity is the chief source
of energy to run several kinds of pumps for lifting water from dugwells and tubewells. The other
important source of energy to run pumps is diesel. The most common types of irrigation pump sets in
vogue are run by either electric or diesel power. Pump sets have become extremely popular with the
farmers because they give the control of irrigation water in their own hands. Such a control enables the
farmers to go in for high yielding variety of crops as he is sure to get the required water supply at
appropriate time, the crops need. As on 1989-90 there are 8.23 million electric pump sets and 4.35
million diesel pumps sets installed in the country. ,
The Indian pump industry has recorded phenomenal growth. Starting from a production of a few
hundred pumps in 1990's. It has now touched a figure of about one million pumps every year. Half
of these pumps are produced by organised and the other half by unorganised sector. The Indian pumps
industry maintained an average growth rate of 15% per annum during 1978-79 and 1982-83. Thereafter
the growth rate has crossed 20%. In view of large emphasis on groundwatrer development in Eighth Plan
period, the growth rate is expected to be maintained at this level.
Inspite of great efforts and achievements on the electrcification of villages in the country through
the Rural Electrification Corporation, still a large number of villages remained unelectrified and electri­
fication of many villages which need huge investments may be uneconomical. Availability of conven­
tional sources of energy like coal and oil is limited and requires to be transported over long distances.
It is in this context that utilisation of non conventional source of energy such as solar, wind and biogas
available locally assumes added importance for lifting groundwater for irrigational needs especially in
the remote villages.
(jv) Accelerating the Flow of Institutional Investment
For improving the situation of institutional investments, there should be:­
Expeditious preparation of plans and simplification of procedures for sanction of loan applications.
Organised and sustained drive for improving the recovery position and lending eligibility of banks.
Greater involvement of the Commercial Banks as well as Rural Banks in the programme.
Recovery of loans from the farmers may be made in gradual instalments instead of equated
instalments.
(v) Stepping up Rural Electrification
Therural electrification coupled with the assured power supply is the backbone of Minor Irrigation
Programmes. It is, therefore necessary that:­
Funds made available by Rural Electrification Coroporation should be utilised on the scheme for
which they are earmarked.
To avoid serious imbalance in consumption of electric power in agricultural and the industrial
21

29. sector in rural areas, certain minimum percentage of power generated from the new projects be
exclusively earmarked for agricultural purposes.
Priority should be given to the schemes for system improvement in order to save line losses.
Imposition of power restrictions in agriculture should be avoided as far as possible. If it is inevitable
a well planned schedule of power supply should be worked out by the State Electricity Boards in
consultation with Irrigation Department in advance and should be strictly adhered to.
Lift irrigation projects are designed to operate round-the-clock during periods of peak irrigation
demand. It is, therefore, necessary that these works are served with dedicated feeders which are
not subjected to load shedding during irrigation season.
Rationalisation of electricity tariff for agricultural purposes.
(vi) Use of Ground Water for Water Supply
When the National Drinking Water Mission was launched in 1986, the mini mission concept was
introduced with the intention to bring in new technologies in solving rural water supply problems. The
mission while implementing this Central programmes had adopted following norms in providing rural
water supply to the rural population. .
a) 40 litres of safe drinking water per capita per day (lpcd) for human beings.
b) 30 Ipcd additionally for cattle in the desert districts. This 30 Ipcd was however to be based on
human population.
c) One hand pump or stand post for every 250 person.
It is seen from the physical progress report of the mission upto the year 1992-93 that targets have
practically been achieved and problem villages have been covered t-o a large extent.
• (vii) Use of Ground Water for Industry
Ground Water in view of its inherent advantages such as high dependability, uniform temperature,
potable quality etc., is being used to meet various needs of the Industry. Large quantities of ground
water, totalling more than 20 mgd (about 500 m3
/sec) are being withdrawn to meet the water require­
ments of Haldia Petrocomplex. Port and other industries in the Haldia region of West Bengal. Since
surface water though abundant in the region is unsuitable during dry months, due to :;alinity increase,
hence the entire water supply in that area is being met from the ground water resource. Similarly the
total water requirements of the mines and plants of the Khetri Copper Project in Rajasthan amounting
to 42000 m3
/day are being met by ground water pumped from 17 tubewells operating in the Jodhpur­
Chaonra area.
In South Arcot district of Tamilnadu the Neyveli Artesian Ground Water Reservoir forms part of the
Cuddalore formations of Miocene age. For successful mining of the lignite deposits in the area, it was
essential to depressurise the confined aquifer, occuring below the lignite seam. This has been achieved
by well p'lanned optimum pumping operations in and around the mine cut areas to lower and maintain
the pressure head at requisite level. Most of the water pumped out from the aquifer is used by the
Therma'i Power stations annd other industrial complexes in the area. The surplus ground water along
with the mines seepage and rain water is being let into the natural drain for raising two crops in the
area. The successful impact produced by the Neyveli industrial complexes over the enhancement of the
socio-economic conditions of the region is thus made possible by the presence of ground water. ·
6.S GROUND WATER MONITORING AND LEGISLATION
The growing complexity of modern SOCiety puts increasing stress on groundwater. In a situation
characterised by phenomenal growth of groundwater use, ,it is of utmost importance that ground water
regime indifferent hydrogeological situations in the country is monitored reqularly in respect of its
quantity and quality. To keep a watch on the groundwater situation in different part of the country and
22

30. ·' .
..:,::~i~:i~~

31. to study the response of ground water levels to increase or decrease in the amounts of inputs from
various sources; the Central Ground Water Board, has set up a national net work of observation wells
and is monitoring water level and water quality data form these observation wells. At present besides
above observation wells have been estabilished and it is planned to set up 3000 more observation wells
during the Eighth Plan period. It is necessary to criticially review the adequacy or need for additional ·
statiors, in the light of the complex hydrogeological situations in the country, to get a reliable picture
on the groundwater situation from time to time.
There is also need for development of suitable data base system and it would be necessary to use
automated instruments for ground water level data collection and micro- processor based data system
for recording and transmission of data. Software would also be required to be developed, to analyse
these data for comprehensive studies pertaining to system simulation, identification and forecasting.
The control being adopted at present for regulating ground water development to some extent is
in the form of administrative measures. The control that exists at present is through indirect measures
being adopted by institutional financing agencies, who by and large insist for technical clearance of
proposed programme from authorised Groundwater Departments of the respective states. These depart­
ments in turn look into various aspects of ground water availability and scope for further development
in the area under reference.
When viewing the water resources environment, the division of constitutional responsibilities·
between the Union and the States is also to be kept in mind. Water that is to say Water supplies,
irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, Water storage and water power, subject to the
provisions of Entry 56 of the Union List, is covered by entry 17 of the State List in the Seventh Schedule
of the Constitution of India. Entry 56 of the Union List mentions regulation and development of inter
- State rivers and river valleys to the extent to which such regulation and development under the control
of the Union is declared by parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest. Thus, ground water
development lies within the purview of the States unless two or more States desire Central legislation
under Article 252. Primarily, legislative competence and responsibility for water lies with States except
in the matter of Inter-state rivers.
The Government of Uttar Pradesh enacted U.P. States Tubewells Act 1936 in mid- thirties. At much
later date Punjab also enacted Punjab State Tubewells Act 1954. These acts provide for construction and
maintenance of State Tubewells and supply of Water from them. Due to intensive ground water devel­
opment and related problems, the States of Gujarat and Tamilnadu seriously considered the necessity
of introducing legislation on ground water. In Gujarat State, after protracted deliberations it was possible
to have a law on "Ground Water" through President's Act during 1976. The responsibility of bringing
into force and implementing the Bombay Irrigation (Gujarat Amendment) Act 1976 devolved on the
popular Governments.
A working group consisting of representatives of Central Government and various State Govern­
ments was constituted by Government of India to draft a Model Bill(1970) for control and regulation
of ground water. The draft model bill was circulated to different States for adoption and enacting the
law in State Assemblies. The Model Bill could not make much headway and the State were unable to
introduce legislation on Groundwater, as advised by Government of India.
A revised Model Bill (1992) to regulate and control the development of ground water has been
prepared and circulated amongst the State Governments The revised Model Bill is basically the same
as that of 1970, draft bill except the following 0) the marginal and the small farmers need not have to
take permission to construct wells, they have.to only inform the authorities if they wish to construct a
well. Oi) The wells constructed for the purpose of drinking also under the purview of this regulation.
There is an urgent need to evolve a procedure for enforcing comprehensive and effective legal
control and regulation for the development of ground water resources ofthe country especially for
transboundary acquifers.
23

32. POINTS REQUIRING CONSIDERATION IN FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF
GROUND WATER AND MINOR IRRIGATION
The value of ground water and surface water from minor works as a source to meet the needs of our
ever increasing population for drinking, industry, irrigation and hydro power lies in the fact that it is
ubiguitous, dependable, can be put to use comparatively with ease and speed and is capable of being
tapped to a large extent by wells and small capacity tubewells, which can be owned individually or
jointly by the people, especially farmers. Concerted efforts have to be put in for, planning of safe and
optimum utilisation of these resources and their proper management. Various points/issues requiring
consideration for optimum development of these resources in future could be broadly classified into two
main groups viz.
I. Those which fall within the purview of th~ technical improvement/further research, and
I~. Those which call for policy decisions and adjustments after public debate.
These are enumerated below:
I. THOSE WHICH FAll WITHIN THE PURVIEW OF THE TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENT/FURTHER
RESEARCH
(i) Before planning public tubewells on a large scale, adequate hydrogeological investigation of the
area should be conducted in order to fix a sUitable spacing between the tubewells to avoid mutual
interference.
• (ii) Over exploitation of ground water be avoided as it will cause adverse effects in terms of decline
in water table and excess energy consumption, leading to higher costs of well irrigation. There is
urgent need to encourage artificial recharge of ground water in the areas with over exploitation.
(iii) Adequate workshop facilities, to attend to the normal and special repairs expeditiously, need to be
provided. Mobile workshop facilities could be considered to minimise the repair time.
(iv) An analysis needs to be made as to why large scale ground water development has not taken place
in the eastern and the north-eastern regions of the country. Reasons for the same need to be found
out and if feasible, ground water development in these areas needs to be acctderated.
(v) Socio-economic studies of the minor irrigation schemes need to be carried out
(vi) Schemes for utilising non-conventional sources of energy like hydrams, solar-photo, voltaic cell,
pumps, etc. need to be encouraged. Necessary R&D efforts in this regard need to be stepped up.
(vii) To reduce the gap between the created irrigation potential and its utilisation and also for optimising
the benefits, the following measures need to be adopted:
a. Application of water at the right time and in right quantities.
b. Execution of the on -farm development works including land levelling, land shaping, field
drains, relignment of boundaries.
c. Lining of field channels wherever necessary.
d. Introduction of turn schedule ( Warabandi) for equitable distribution.
e. Arrangement for and application of inputs including improved seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, short
term credit faci Iities.
f. Selection and introduction of suitable cropping pattern.
24

33. •
(viii) Research efforts in various areas, such as ground water hydrology and recharge, prevention of
salinity ingress, water harvesting, evaporation and seepage Ilosses, recycling and re-use etc. need
to be intensified for efficient use and management of water resources.
II. THOSE WHICH CAll FOR POLICY DECISIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS AFTER PU6L1C DEBATE
The issues could further be sub-divided into two categories i.e. those needing organisational
changes/adjustments and those involving financial aspects. These are as follows:
Organisational
0) Could ground water be treated as a National asset and legislation enacted especially for the
exploitation and use of transboundary aquifers?
Oi) Since the minor irrigation programme in the States and the Union Territories is implemented by
several Departments, is there a need for better co-ordination, and if so, what administrative changes
would be required?
(iii) There is a general feeling that major and medium projects are costly to execute and have long
gestation period in their operation. They sub-merge large cultivated and forests I'ands and lead to
environmental problems, while small and ground water projects have many favourable aspects like
quick construction and environmental problems. There is further advantage in the use of ground
water that it enables ownership and control of operation in individual's hands which avoids
wastage of water. Further, it is the most dependable source for naturally filtered drinking water
supply even in deserts. Does this call for accelerated development in small and ground water works
only?
Ov) For augmenting over exploited ground water sources is H economical to undertake induced/
artificial recharge projects? Would it not be desirable to take up small surface projects to irrigate
areas either by flow or lift which will be useful in raising ground water levell and could be used
for drinking water supply especially in arid and semi-arid areas. And in case recharge schemes are
essential in over-exploited areas can farmers be encouraged to cause recharge?
(v) Turning over of State tubewells to beneficiaries for their upkeep and running could also be
considered to reduce the financial burden on the State and improve management.
Financial
0) Minor Irrigation programme for tribal/backward and drought prone areas and areas having
predominentiy Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes farmers, need encouragement in view of
their socio-economic conditions, the means of achieving needs to be decided.
(ii) What policy and the procedural changes are necessary to encourage drip and sprinkler irrigation
in ground water use?
(iii) How to rationa~ ise the different water rates for surface and ground water in command of a surface
project, and what procedural changes should be made to ensure that conjunctive use develops and
optimum use of both sources takes pl.ace. ·
(iv) Management of State tubewells need to be improved by providing uninterrupted power supply. Can
this be done by providing independent feeders? And also whether incentives could be given to the
operational staff to have better performance of tubewells.
(v) There is no parity of water rates in surface and ground water irrigation. Should the present
subsidised water rate continue? Further should there be no critical review of the command areas
of such projects? As generally the tailend benefeciaries with small holdings are denied their share
of water, such review will enable equitable distribution of water, as also fixing up of water rates­
. on the basis of crops grown.
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