Curriculum in economics / Theories of Curriculum / Foundations of Curriculum
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
Curriculum in Economics
Definition of Curriculum
The word curriculum was derived from Latin word ‘currere’ which means to run which was used to describe the
process of running courses in schools, from nursery to university.
Curriculum development
Curriculum development is defined as the process of selecting, organizing, executing, and evaluating learning
experiences on the basis of the needs, abilities and interests of the learners and nature of the society or
community.
Curriculum development describes all the ways in which training or teaching organization plans and guides
learning. This learning can take place in groups or with individual learners. It can take place in groups or with
individual learners. It can take place inside or outside a classroom. It can take place in an institutional setting
like a school, college or training center, or in a village or a field.
Theories of curriculum
Meaning and Importance of curriculum Theory
Theory: refers to statement which explains some series of events covering a given subject matter, from which a
compressive and consistent set of specific and testable hypothesis can be deduced (figured out) logically.
Characteristics of a good theory
1. Predictive Accuracy-can it reliably predict behavior?
2. Internal Coherence-are there any logical inconsistencies between any of the theoretical ideas?
3. Fertility-Does it generate research, and can it be used to explain a wide variety of social behavior?
Classifications of Curriculum theories
1. Value-oriented theories are concerned primarily with analyzing the values and assumptions of curriculum
makers and their products. Value-oriented theories tend to be critical in nature.
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
Value-oriented theorists seem to be primarily engaged in what might be termed “educational consciousness-
raising,” attempting to sensitize educators to the values issues that lie at the hearts of both the hidden and the
stated curricula. Their intent is primarily a critical one; thus, they sometimes have been identified as “critical
theorists.” Since many have argued the need for reconceptualizing the field of curriculum, they often are
labeled as reconceptualizes. In their inquiries, value-oriented theorists tend to examine issues such as the
following:
1. In what ways do the schools replicate the power differentials in the larger society?
2. What is the nature of a truly liberated individual, and how does schooling inhibit such liberation?
3. How do schools consciously or unwittingly mold children and youth to fit into societal roles predetermined
by race and class?
2. Process-oriented theories are concerned primarily with describing how curricula are developed or
recommending how they should be developed. Some process-oriented theories are descriptive in nature;
others are more prescriptive.
3. Content-oriented theorists are concerned primarily with specifying the major sources that should influence
the selection and organization of the curriculum content. Content-oriented theories are concerned primarily
with determining the content of the curriculum. Content- oriented theories tend to be prescriptive in nature.
For the most part, their theories can be classified in terms of their views as to which source should
predominate:
• child-centered theories,
• knowledge-centered theories, or
• society-centered theories.
4. Structure-oriented theories are concerned primarily with analyzing the components of the curriculum and
their interrelationships. Structure-oriented theories tend to be descriptive and explanatory in intent. Structure-
oriented theories examine questions such as the following.
1. What are the essential concepts of the curriculum field and how may they most usefully be defined? For
example, what does the term curriculum mean?
2. What are the levels of curriculum decision making and what forces seem to operate at each of those levels?
For example, how do classroom teachers make decisions about the curriculum
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
3. How may the curriculum field be most validly analyzed into its component parts? For example, how does
a program of study differ from a field of study?
4. What principles seem to govern issues of content selection, organization, and sequencing? For example,
how can curricular elements be articulated?
5. Event theory. This theory, very similar to what we have been discussing as scientific theory, refers to
speculation about occurrences. It attempts to predict what will occur given certain circumstances. 3.
Valuation theory. This theory involves speculation about the appropriate means to attain the objectives most
desired and to include the content judged to be the best.
6. Praxiological theory. Such theory refers to speculation about appropriate means to attain what is considered
valuable. It is about practices.
Foundations of curriculum
The foundations of curriculum set the external boundaries of the knowledge of curriculum and define what
constitutes valid source of information from which come accepted theories, principles and ideas relevant to the
field of curriculum. The foundations of curriculum represent the external boundaries of the field. The foundations
of curriculum are considered usually from philosophical, sociological, psychological, and economics points of
view.
1. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum
Philosophical foundations may be defined as the elements of philosophy which have a bearing on the choices
made in regard to the purposes, methods and content of the school. The function of philosophy can be conceived
as either 1) the base or starting point in curriculum development or 2) an interdependent function with other
functions in curriculum development.
John Dewey contended that a philosophy may be defined as “the general theory of education and that the business
of philosophy is to provide the framework for the aims and methods of schools”.
Connection b/w Philosophy & Curriculum
Philosophy reflected by a particular school and its officials influences the goals and content, as well as the
organization, of its curriculum. Usually, schools reflect several philosophies, which add to the dynamics of the
curriculum within the school/ school system. It helps answer general questions:
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
• What are schools for? • What subjects are of value? • How should students learn the content? It also helps us
to answer precise tasks: • What textbooks to use? • How to use them? • What & how much of home- work to
assign? • How to test and use the results?
A. Perennialism
o Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as
when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in schools. They believe that the ideas of
history's finest thinkers are meaningful even today.
o The study of these enduring ideas will enable students to appreciate learning for its own sake as well as
develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
Perennialist curriculum
Based on the beliefs of Perennialism, the curriculum should have following characteristics:
• The study of philosophy because it enables students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless
in understanding the human condition.
• Teaching of religious values or ethics.
• While teaching ability to differentiate between rights and wrong is emphasized, so that students have definite
rules that they must follow.
B. Essentialism
Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics.
- It advocates instilling in students the “basics” or "essentials" of academic knowledge & character development.
- Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues, schools should not try to radically reshape
society.
- Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become
model citizens.
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- Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To
teach important knowledge about the world, essentialists emphasized instruction in natural science rather than
nonscientific disciplines such as philosophy & comparative religion.
Characteristics of Essentialist Curriculum
- The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language &
literature.
- Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content.
- Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading & measurement. While learning art
and music (creativity) students are required to master a body of information & basic techniques, gradually
moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge.
C. Progressivism
Progressivism argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in
real-life activities with other people. The role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing young
people for adult life. Education should allow learners to realize their interests and potential. Learners should
learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. ‘Learning by doing’ is
emphasized.
Characteristics of Progressive
Curriculum It emphasizes the study of the natural & social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new:
scientific, technological, & Social developments.
To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing
that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum focuses on the:
• Experiences’, ‘interests’, & ‘abilities of students.
• Integration of several different subject areas rather than confining to one discrete discipline at a time.
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
• exposing students to democratic values that recognize accomplishments of all citizens regardless of: race,
cultural background, & Gender.
Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is about:
• change & reform.
• rebuilding of social & cultural infrastructures.
It argues that:
• students must be taught to study social problems & think of ways to improve society.
• Schools become the agent of social change & social reform.
Characteristics of Reconstructivist
Curriculum Its emphasis is on:
• social sciences; history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, & philosophy, rather
than pure sciences
• social & economic issues as well as social service
• making students to analyze, interpret & evaluate social problems,
• encouraging students to take action to bring about constructive change
• engaging students in critical analysis of the local, national & international community issues; e.g., poverty,
pollution, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, & Hunger. The curriculum keeps on changing to meet
the needs of changing society.
D. Pragmatism
The pragmatist visualized the relationship between man and the world as one of perpetual (continuous) growth
towards a dynamic equilibrium. The utility theory of truth is to the effect that truth is what worked in practice.
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
It is based on change, process and relatively. It constructs knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly
changing and rejects the dogmas of pre-conceived truths and external values.
Pragmatic and curriculum
Pragmatic curriculum reflects practical utilitarian subjects. The curriculum designed based on the principle of
utility, integration and child’s personal needs, interests and experience. Curriculum must not exist apart from the
social context. The pragmatism places heavy emphasis on broad-field curriculum, diversified curriculum,
experience-centered curriculum, problem-based curriculum. In brief, the pragmatic curriculum is built on
people’s experiences and needs.
2. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning
process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students’ learning at the
optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the
curriculum. The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum development:
. Behaviorism
Education in the 20th
century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter is given more
emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition are common. For
this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many are skeptical about
this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system.
2. Cognitivism
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their thinking. The basic
questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:
• How do learners process and store information?
• How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
• How much information can they absorb?
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the use
of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others.
3. Humanism
Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory. This group
of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.
In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject
matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded
on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment.
They are neither machines nor animals. A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human
potential must be crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.
3. Sociology and Curriculum
There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists
within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other units
of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities.
Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But
the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the world as well.
Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary. A
curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the internet,
and the educational reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations.
However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and preserves its
culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility to
ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.
4. Economical Foundations
There are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different
views among economists. Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined as "an inquiry into the nature and
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as “a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator (with the
twofold objectives of providing) a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... (and) to supply the state or
commonwealth with a revenue for the public services”.
It focuses on:
• Job or market-oriented curriculum
• Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the curriculum. The
economic condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country, because the stakeholder of the
education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to build their economy and the people have better
jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situations, the curriculum become job or market oriented.
In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is the demands of the
time. Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to other countries for jobs
Here are some economic factors which influence the curriculum development process.
o The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one can’t
achieve the outcome of a good curriculum.
o The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard to train
the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the establishment
of training institutions for teachers and support staff.
o The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because without proper
computer labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer education curriculum all over the
country.
Development of Economics curriculum.
In Pakistan, the curriculum, with varying definitions, is said to be a plan of the teaching learning process that
students of an academic programme are required to undergo. It includes objectives & learning outcomes, course
contents, scheme of studies, teaching methodologies and methods of assessment of learning. Since knowledge
in all disciplines and fields is expanding at a fast pace and new disciplines are also emerging; it is imperative
that curricula be developed and revised accordingly. University Grants Commission (UGC) was designated as
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
the competent authority to develop, review and revise curricula beyond Class-XII vide Section 3, Sub-Section 2
(ii), Act of Parliament No. X of 1976 titled “Supervision of Curricula and Textbooks and Maintenance of
Standard of Education”. With the repeal of UGC Act, the same function was assigned to the Higher Education
Commission (HEC) under its Ordinance of 2002, Section 10, Sub- Section 1 (v).
In compliance with the above provisions, the Curriculum Division of HEC undertakes the revision of curricula
after every three years through respective National Curriculum Revision Committees (NCRCs) which consist of
eminent professors and researchers of relevant fields from public and private sector universities, R&D
organizations, councils, industry and civil society by seeking nominations from their organizations. In order to
impart quality education which is at par with international standards, HEC NCRCs have developed unified
templates as guidelines for the development and revision of curricula in the disciplines of Basic Sciences,
Applied Sciences, Social Sciences, Agriculture and Engineering in 2007 and 2009.
Curricula of BS Economics Program (University of Education)
The subject of economics has gained central position in the new international developments like globalization,
institution development, sustained economic growth and regional trade agreements. With this significance in the
perspective, the University of Education is going to start BS Economics Program in its Campuses across Punjab.
The economists play vital role in formulation and implementation of economic policies of a country, and the
universities play their role to provide skilled and well-trained man-power for this purpose. Accordingly, it is
important to keep up with the pace of new developments in the world. Thus, the curricula have to be updated to
incorporate new concepts and literature in the training course and degree program. The subject of economics has
gradually evolved as the most important social science.
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
BS Economics Program Design:
BS Economics program will comprise of Eight Semesters (04 years). The total number of credit hours will be
133, having 43 courses each of 03 credit hours and 2 courses each of 02 credit hours.
Program Objectives:
1) Development of sound theoretical knowledge of the subject.
2) Application of economic theories and enhancing problem solving ability.
3) Coverage of new areas of specialization, as per market needs.
4) Preparation for advanced studies leading to M. Phil. and Ph.D.
5) Training to produce quality teachers, researchers and policy makers.
6) Dissemination of comprehensive knowledge focused at applied and quantitative economics.
7) Equip the students with postgraduate level knowledge and skill comparable to the top
standards at national institutions.
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Fig.1 Curriculum of economics for bs (4 year), (revised by HEC 2013)
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
FRAMEWORK FOR BS (4-YEAR) ECONOMICS
Fig.2 Curriculum of economics for bs (4 year), (revised by HEC 2013)
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Curriculum in Economics by Hina Jalal (Phd Scholar GCUF)
References:
• Hashmi Aroona (2014). Curriculum Theories, retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/aroonahashmi/curriclum-36077063?from_m_app=android on June 13, 2019.
• Curriculum / Scheme of Studies of Bachelor of Science in Economics (BS Economics) (Revised in 2018),
University of Education, Lahore
• Curriculum of economics for bs (4 year), (revised 2013), Higher Education Commission Islamabad.