Rethinking Talent Based Education in Kakamega County, Kenya Stephen Opanga (RCE Kakamega Western Kenya) 12th African RCE Regional Meeting 28-30 November, 2022

1. Dr. STEPHEN A. OPANGA
Consultant in Counselling Psychology, Gender, Policy and
Research.
scephopanga5@gmail.com/ swaopanga@yahoo.com
+254 721351679/773222746
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2. As unemployment continues to affect millions
of young people and businesses struggle to
find qualified employees, the global community
has become increasingly attuned to the need to
prepare young people for the world of work.
Skills development offers a key to smoothing
that transition. Adopted by the United Nations,
July 15 marked the second annual World Youth
Skills Day.
2

3. Persisting in such high numbers, youth
unemployment affects, impacts individuals,
families, communities, international businesses,
and whole economies. Put simply, it becomes a
pressing issue for everyone, everywhere. At the
same time, passionate and innovative young
people around the world are showing us the
power of youth-led business and social change.
Understanding the potential of well - trained
young people to transform our world for the
better, we see at least six key reasons to invest in
youth skills:
3

4. 1. We can't reach the Sustainable Development
Goals without investing in youth skills.
Within the Global Goals, skills development
figures as part of Goal 4, around quality
education. What that framework doesn't say, but
what IYF knows to be true, is that this learning
factors into how the world can achieve each
objective on the ambitious agenda. In addition to
being critical to achieving Goal 1, ending global
poverty, youth skills development can have a far-
reaching ripple effect, as illustrated by other
points in this list.
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5. 2. We don't have time to lose.
By 2030, the end date for the SDGs, today's 18
year-old will be 26. Our mission is that by that
age, a young person is a productive, civically
engaged, tax-paying citizen who can support a
family, if they have one. We must reach today's
young people with the right technical and life
skills to unlock opportunity for them and future
generations. Our Passport to Success© program
focuses on life skills such as self-confidence,
responsibility, and respect, and workplace
readiness skills including interviewing, time
management, and career planning.
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6. 3. Fostering youth skills can drive gender equity
and ultimately promote gender equality (Goal 5).
When IYF looked at what the world's young
people are doing, we saw that 178.2 million fewer
young women than men have legal work despite
being enrolled at every level of education in
higher numbers. That is to say nothing of wage
gaps, roadblocks to completing education, and
representation in leadership. A holistic package
that includes offerings such as life skills,
reproductive health education, and money
management can prepare young women to secure
safer, better paying jobs; enjoy greater self-
confidence; find financial independence; and
become peer leaders in their communities.
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7. 4. Investing in young people is good for business.
With partner Hilton Worldwide, we've seen a real
commitment over time to their team members'
life skills development and, through efforts like a
high school degree equivalency initiative, their
continued education. In addition to the
satisfaction and opportunity this kind of skills
development affords the young person, for the
company, this investment can offer returns in the
form of staff retention, superior teamwork, and
increased customer satisfaction.
7

8. 5. Equipping young people with new skills can
make communities safer and healthier.
Through our Youth:Work Mexico initiative, we
proved the value of skills in providing young
people, especially young men, with alternatives to
gangs and drugs. "When Youth:Work arrived, it
was like rescuing the youth of Ciudad Juárezto
get them out of violence, out of vulnerability, out
of the streets," says facilitator Cristina in the
video Youth Help Youth Get Jobs. Goal 3 of the
SDGs speaks to need to ensure the health and
well-being "for all at all ages."
8

9. 6. Trained with the skills that augment their
passion and interests, young people are powerful
partners in solving problems, creating jobs, and
leading change.
Through our global initiatives, we have seen the
way skills training has equipped entrepreneurs
like Deddy in Indonesia to grow thriving
businesses that employ other youth. As alumni of
Youth Action Net, more than 1,350 innovative
young leaders are changing how we access
affordable and clean energy (Goal 7), fight
gender-based violence (Goal 5), and protect
ocean resources (Goal 14), just to name a few. To
reach SDG Goal 17, we must tap the critical
insights of these skilled change-makers.
9

10. We must continue to open the doors of opportunity to
more young people, who are powerful allies and can be
key advocates for sustainable change. It is with this in
mind that the County Transformation Programme (CTP), a
Community Based Organization set out to establish an
Integrated Vocational Skills and Talent Development
Centre, in Kakamega County, Kenya. We intend to offer
training for Home Keepers; to train young men in various
skills; offer counselling, talent identification and tapping;
offer refresher short courses (1 - 3 months) to youth
focused at Youth Enrichment / Empowerment; Develop
rehabilitation facilities to tackle the drug and alcohol
abuse problem; offer Business Coaching and related
services to business start-ups and SMEs; Develop small
scale cottage industries - Have sample production lines for
various products to inculcate aspects of sustainable
production and consumption (Honey, Peanut Butter, Sun
Flower products, Cane Juice and Jam processing).
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11. Our Strategy is to broach and share the idea with
other stakeholders; carry out feasibility study to
determine the needs of the county; Determine the
requisite licenses / permits for the business;
follow Guiding principles in developing an all-
round youth for the county and nation with
strong pillars (Spiritual, Economic and Social);
Seek possible funding sources including;
school/college fees; partners to invest in the
venture; financial institutions that provide low
interest loans; land/location for the venture
within the county, Seeking divine direction
through prayers and planning on the action steps
to take for implementation.
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14. 14

15. It's time to rethink programs for “gifted” students
and learn how to recognize and nurture individual
talents. Teaching basic skills and subject
matter—the fundamental duties of teachers—can
be abundantly satisfying if done creatively and
successfully. But finding and nurturing special
talents in children and youth, and seeing those
students and their talents blossom, are among
the great joys of teaching. In fact, our task in
school should be to do both—to teach basic skills
well and as early as possible, and to identify and
nurture students' strengths.
15

16.  Where, then, does education for gifted children
come in?
 Do we even need special gifted programs? I would
say maybe not.
 Do we need challenging classes, high-powered and
cognitively complex curriculums, and the flexibility
to allow children to get into advanced classes?
Emphatically yes.
 Do we need teachers and other mentors who are
attuned to talent development? Yes, again.
What we really need is a new orientation in gifted
education. We must move from the global conception
of giftedness to the growing emphasis on identifying
and developing talent in students locally. To help
teachers and counselors do that, I will offer some
specific guidelines. 16

17. Before I do, however, consider the following three case studies and
what they illustrate about the development of talents.
Ellen, Michael, and Anne
1. Ellen, a 13-year-old 9th grader, is an avid and talented creative
writer who comes from a family of readers. Her mother spent much
time with her on writing activities, and by the time Ellen finished
kindergarten, she could read so well that she skipped 1st grade.
Ellen began to demonstrate a talent for creative writing in the 2nd
grade. Her teacher provided many opportunities for story writing and
noted Ellen's imaginative powers, large and effective vocabulary, and
ability to write narratives. She submitted one of Ellen's stories to a
national children's magazine, and to the delight of the teacher, Ellen,
and Ellen's parents, it was accepted and published. Ellen's parents held
a luncheon to celebrate.
The following summer, Ellen's parents retained a tutor to work with her
on her writing. Now, six years later, her family and teachers continue to
give her as many opportunities as possible in writing contests and with
tutors. (She also plays the violin and is good in mathematics.) They have
never labeled Ellen a gifted child, but they have spoken often with Ellen
about her talents and interests.
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18. 2. Michael, 23, works as a paramedic team leader and as
an instructor in a paramedic training program. He is
caring, socially adept, and a true leader.
When Michael was only 8, his 3rd grade teacher noticed
his leadership skills after giving him an opportunity to lead
a small group of children in planning a project on
endangered species. In middle school, Michael's poise and
articulateness became apparent when he was elected
president of a school club. As a high school student, he
exhibited strength as a caregiver in a part-time job at a
senior citizen center.
Michael was earning grades of B and C, but a number of
people—including his parents, teachers, and school
counselors—noticed his emerging strengths and helped
him learn about careers as a paramedic and emergency
health specialist. As a result, he entered a community
college paramedic program from which he graduated with
honors.
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19. 3. Anne was a classic C student in elementary school.
Her parents and a string of teachers believed that she
possessed no special talents but that she was skilled
socially. It was not until Anne was in the 7th grade that
a mathematics teacher noticed her substantial talent for
mathematics. The teacher, who engaged her students in
a lot of problem solving, discovery, and constructivist
learning activities, urged Anne to take all the math
courses she could. She also informed Anne's parents of
her observation.
After that, Anne began to improve greatly in all her
subjects and to emerge as a leader in clubs and other
extracurricular activities. She graduated with honors
from a highly competitive high school and went on to
earn an MBA degree at one of the first-ranked business
schools in the country.
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21. 21

22. What can we learn from the experiences of these
three students?
One lesson is that talent-oriented education
builds a strong sense of self-efficacy, effective
goal setting, and a personal commitment that can
enhance students' specific achievements and lead
them to higher-level career accomplishments.
This is true whether students' strengths are
academic (mathematics, science, language arts,
social studies, foreign language); artistic (art,
music, dance, drama); vocational (agriculture,
home economics, computer technology,
business, trade, industrial); or interpersonal
(leadership, teaching, caregiving, psychology).
22

23. Our major goal should be to tailor learning
arrangements, curriculums, materials, resources,
and activities, as much as possible, to individual
students or to small subgroups or whole classes of
students whose readiness is the same. Some
excellent research studies, summarized by Walberg
(1986), clearly show that if young people,
particularly at the elementary level, are placed in
classes where the general curriculum and
instruction fit their levels of readiness, they will
achieve or learn at much higher levels than they
would in heterogeneous classrooms. Further, they
will look back on that placement—or acceleration
as it is sometimes mistakenly called—as a
personally satisfying experience. 23

24. One reason is that such programs, paradoxically,
often are not tailored to the needs of individual
students. The underlying assumption in such
programs is that these students are all the same,
when in fact their types and degrees of talent vary
widely. Too often, gifted programs offer standard,
weak, all-purpose enrichment without regard to . The
underlying assumption in such programs is that these
students are all the same, when in fact their types and
degrees of talent vary widely. Too often, gifted
programs offer standard, weak, all-purpose
enrichment without regard to special talents. They
also use tests and rating scales in psychometrically
indefensible ways to dichotomize youth as gifted or
not gifted, surely a dreadful message to the
“ungifted.” 24

25. Another problem with gifted programs is that
they communicate to young people that their
talent or ability is a fully developed entity, an
orientation that Dweck and Leggett (1988)
have shown leads to some maladaptive
learning behaviors. By contrast, the two
researchers found that viewing talent as
something that develops incrementally leads to
more productive learning behaviors.
25

26. In the early years, children's talents may be quite
undifferentiated. They may be limited to what Gagne
(1991) calls the “basic giftednesses” (intellectual, creative,
socio-affective, and sensorimotor aptitudes), or what
Gardner (1983) calls the seven “intelligences” (logical-
mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). As children
experience varying environments at school, at home, and
in the community, they demonstrate more specific
strengths or aptitudes.
 4–10 years: Growth in cognitive control through
exploration and observation
 10–13 years: Talent development through mentors,
models, contests, apprenticeships
 13–18 years: Commitment to talent development,
idealism, blending self with talent
 18–22 years: Crystallization of talent with a career
choice
26

27. Research shows that teachers do not need lengthy training
to recognize and develop talent, only the orientation and
motivation to do so. Here are some strategies that both
teachers and counselors may find useful.
1. Commit yourself to the role of talent scout.
Be alert to signs of talent in four areas—
academic/intellectual, artistic, vocational/technical, and
interpersonal/social. Bloom (1985) reminded us that the
process of identifying talents should begin early and be
viewed as a continuous process of ever better delineation
of students' strengths, interests, and learning-growth
styles. It is not a one-shot process that tests and
pronounces a child gifted or not gifted at a particular time,
but rather an ongoing process, using learning experiences,
tests, and feedback from teachers and parents. Above all,
students and their parents should have a growing
awareness of the student's talent strengths, interests, and
learning styles.
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28. 2. Children who quickly learn long division, or later how to
divide complex fractions, may be showing signs of math
talent.
Talent may also be demonstrated by those who write
poetry with striking images, who are conversant in political
events, who write excellent reports on science
experiments; who demonstrate skill in painting, music, or
drama; or in producing projects in business, agriculture,
shop, or home economics. The teacher's role is to point
out these strengths to the child and parents, and to use
achievement test results to further verify the possibly
emerging talent. Teachers may also observe students
being particularly good in leadership roles, in social
interaction, or in helping others to gain insights.
Feldhusen (1993) recommends that teachers take notes on
file cards for each student to use in the second strategy,
below.
28

29. 3. Structure some learning activities that give students
particularly good opportunities to demonstrate their talent
potential.
Students with literary talent, for example, can exhibit their
emerging abilities by writing poetry, stories, or descriptive
prose; science students can brainstorm questions about an
animal or compound, then design projects or research to
answer their own questions; history students can study
historical figures and conduct in-depth analyses of
individual leaders; and math students can work in small
groups and search for alternative ways of representing and
solving classical math problems .In all these instances, the
door is opened for students to exhibit critical thinking and
interests, as well as initiative and skill in planning,
organization, and leadership. Whole class and small group
discussions also are useful because they call for less
teacher talk, direction, and control and more student
initiative.
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30. 4. Recognize and reinforce signs of talent through
praise.
Praising specific talented behavior gives a student a
sense of self-efficacy in that talent and encourages
its growth (Schunk 1991).
5. Help students who have shown signs of talent in
a particular area to set learning goals in that area.
In a classroom research project, Siegle (1995) has
shown that students who are assisted in setting
such goals are more apt to realize growth and
superior achievement in that area. Siegle has
shown, too, that with only one hour of inservice
training, teachers can learn to effectively pinpoint
student talent strengths and help them set goals.
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31. 6. Locate resources to help foster students'
talents.
These include reading material and computer
facilities; area libraries and museums; mentors;
clubs and competitions; Saturday and summer
programs offered by the school or community;
artistic performances; and so on. A number of
school districts and communities publish
directories of resources for student talent
development.
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32. 7. Share your observations of budding talents with
students' parents, and enlist the parents in the effort
to identify and nurture their children's talents.
The parents' role in talent identification and
maturation is powerful. Csikszentmihalyi and
colleagues (1993) and Bloom (1985) have shown that
substantial parent support is required not only in
identifying talents but also in helping children to
obtain needed resources and experiences, in
reinforcing their progress and building their sense of
self-efficacy, and in encouraging goal setting
behavior and a commitment to long-range, high-level
talent development. Of course, the role of parents
necessarily diminishes as the student grows older. By
ages 16–18, students themselves must take
increasing responsibility for developing their talents
and pursuing career goals.
32

33. In sum, a major premise of talent-oriented education is
that all students deserve instruction and learning
opportunities at a level and pace that are appropriate for
their current development and talents. Teachers and
counselors at all grade levels and in all areas must do a
better job of identifying and developing the talents of
students with average and low potential, as well as those
with very high potential. They can do this within any
instructional arrangement—heterogeneous inclusion
classes, pullout classes, or special classes for honors or
advanced placement students.
Education can equip an individual with all the tools that
one needs to prepare for their life experiences and
develop a better future for themselves. Talent is an
individual's natural aptitude or innate skill in a particular
activity.
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43. TBL is based on the concept of “there must be a
professional medical assessment before
prescription”. Talent thus becomes the driver for
passion resulting in “intuitive learning” rather
than “academic learning for grades”. Three
curriculum types that encompass active and
inquiry-based learning pedagogies are project
based learning, problem based learning and the
use of case studies.
Competency-based learning refers to systems of
instruction, assessment, grading, and academic
reporting that are based on students
demonstrating that they have learned the
knowledge and skills they are expected to learn
as they progress through their education.
43

44. The term gifted and talented is often used in
tandem to describe both a wide range of human
exceptional performance, and people who
display such high levels of competence in
culturally valued domains or socially useful
forms of expression. For children to be
identified as gifted and talented, they need to
demonstrate outstanding potential or promise
rather than mature, expert performance. Thus
different standards are used when the term is
applied to children as opposed to adults.
44

45. The term gifted children has a connotation that
the outstanding potential they demonstrate is
largely a natural endowment. However, the term
gifted as used in educational contexts (e.g.,
gifted child or gifted performance) is descriptive
rather than explanatory. Although efforts have
been made to differentiate the two terms, with
giftedness referring to natural (spontaneously
demonstrated) abilities, and talents referring to
systematically developed abilities, such
differentiation proves difficult, if not impossible,
in practice, as no reliable measures exist to tease
apart the constitutional and acquired parts of
individual differences in human abilities.
45

46. The phenomenon of gifted and talented children is easier to
describe than explain. Some scholars in the field attribute
children's outstanding performance on IQ or culturally
defined domains largely to their constitutional makeup (e.g.,
a neurological advantage), reminiscent of the position of
Francis Galton (1822–1911), an early pioneer of behavioral
genetics and intelligence testing. Other scholars are more
cautious about bestowing the title of gifted and talented for
some children by mere virtue of their test performance while
treating the rest as non-gifted. Rather, they emphasize the
emergence of gifted and talented behaviors among children
in more authentic contexts as a result of both genetic and
environmental influences, involving motivational as well as
cognitive processes. Still others point out that, to the extent
that the phenomenon of the gifted and talented is subject to
different interpretations and assessment strategies based on
one's values and beliefs, consequently with different criteria
and outcomes, it reflects a social construction rather than an
objective reality.
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47. One way of analyzing the research underlying conceptions
of giftedness is to review existing definitions along a
continuum ranging from conservative to liberal.
Conservative and liberal are used here not in their political
connotations, but rather according to the degree of
restrictiveness that is used in determining who is eligible
for special programs and services.
Restrictiveness can be expressed in two ways. First, a
definition can limit the number of specific performance
areas that are considered in determining eligibility for
special programs. A conservative definition, for example,
might limit eligibility to academic performance and
exclude other areas such as music, art, drama, leadership,
public speaking, social service, and creative writing.
Second, a definition can limit the degree or level of
excellence that one must attain by establishing extremely
high cutoff points.
47

48. At the conservative end of the continuum is Lewis
Terman's 1926 definition of giftedness as "the top 1
percent level in general intellectual ability as measured by
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale or a comparable
instrument" (p. 43). In this definition, restrictiveness is
present in terms of both the type of performance specified
(i.e., how well one scores on an intelligence test) and the
level of performance one must attain to be considered
gifted (top 1 percent). At the other end of the continuum
can be found more liberal definitions, such as the
following one by Paul Witty in 1958: "There are children
whose outstanding potentialities in art, in writing, or in
social leadership can be recognized largely by their
performance. Hence, we have recommended that the
definition of giftedness be expanded and that we consider
any child gifted whose performance, in a potentially
valuable line of human activity, is consistently
remarkable." (p. 62)
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49. The effectiveness of gifted and talented programs
is not easy to determine for many reasons.
Difficulty in finding appropriate control groups, as
well as in controlling extraneous variables, poses
many threats to internal validity. Ceiling effects
constitute another problem. In addition, some
criteria (e.g., problem solving, creativity) for
evaluating the effectiveness of gifted programs are
not as amenable to reliable measurement as those
typically used in general education. Because of
these difficulties, there is a lack of high-quality
research on the effectiveness of various gifted and
talented programs. More systematic, methodic
(instead of piecemeal) program evaluation is sorely
needed.
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50. Two issues about the effectiveness and equity of
gifted programs remain controversial. The first
one involves the argument that what is good for
gifted students is good for most students. Such
an argument is a double-edged sword. On the
one hand, gifted education can be and has been
a viable laboratory for educational
experimentation. What is shown to be effective
in gifted education may inform and facilitate
reform in general education. On the other hand,
however, it is preposterous to assume that only
gifted children would benefit from such an
education. Many critics who argue that gifted
education is elitist hold such a view.
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51. Two responses have been advanced to address this
concern. First, some components of gifted
programs may indeed be applicable to general
education, such as enrichment or inquiry-based
learning, while other components are only suitable
for gifted children, such as acceleration and some
high-level curricular materials. Second, even
though instructional principles and strategies
appropriate for gifted learners may also be
appropriate for other learners, there are differ and
staff training. In general, gifted education needs to
continue to develop and implement individualized
programs rather than a one-size-fits-all gifted
curriculum, integrating what students receive from
regular classrooms and what they get from pull-out
programs.
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52. Based on their extensive review of the literature, Bruce
Shore and Marcia Delcourt in 1996 suggested that
effective gifted programs
(1) congregate gifted children at least part of the time;
(2) address children at a high intellectual level;
(3) use acceleration when warranted;
(4) address real and challenging problems;
(5) include well-supervised independent study
(6) place educational experiences in a life-span context
for the learner;
(7) build substantially upon opportunities for
individualization;
(8) include well-trained and experienced teachers; and
(9) support the cognitive and affective needs of all gifted
students.
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61. Because the term gifted and talented is an
umbrella concept meant to encompass various
facets of excellence or potential for excellence,
its meaning is an object of constant debate within
and outside of the field. What is the basis for the
phenomenon of gifted and talented performance:
general mental power or highly specific abilities
or talents, or both? Even though most experts in
the field accept the notion of diverse expressions
of excellence, they have their own leanings,
ranging from the most traditional conception of
giftedness as high general intelligence as
indicated by IQ test scores, to the most pluralistic
definition that defies any terms of psychometric
measurement.
61

62. A related question is do gifted and talented manifestations
reflect fundamental attributes of some children (hence gifted
children) that set them apart from other children, or
emergent developmental qualities of the child as a result of
interaction with the environment? Is it a fixed or fluid
condition? Major ideological differences exist in the field
between those who believe that gifted children are a distinct
group of exceptional children who share certain unique
cognitive and social-emotional characteristics (i.e., being
gifted made them different from the rest of children), and
those who believe that gifted and talented performance or
behavior should be understood in a more dynamic context in
which it occurs, and can be attributed to contextual
influences as much as personal characteristics. These
differences have profound implications for identification.
Should we develop a fixed formula for finding the right
gifted child or should we instead focus on nurturing and
facilitating the emergence of gifted behaviors among
children, while holding flexible but "soft" identification
criteria? 62

63. From an assessment perspective, the traditional approach,
deeply rooted in the intelligence testing movement,
focused on a set of static attributes or traits. On the other
hand, a dynamic assessment approach affords a closer
look at processes, strategies, insights, errors, and so on,
and is thus more informative and explanatory. A contrast
has been made between a static (trait) approach and a
dynamic (process) approach that involves micro-level
analysis and clinical insights regarding children's superior
performance. This reinforces the issue of subjectivity in
measurement and assessment. Time will tell whether a
dynamic assessment will supplement, or even replace, the
traditional way of identifying gifted and talented children.
A better understanding of the nature and improved
assessment of potential for talent development will also
help address other derivative issues such as multi-
potentialities, multiple exceptionalities, and
underachievement among highly able children.
63

64. Because of different understandings of the
phenomenon in question and concerns about
equity, some experts suggest that we abandon the
term gifted altogether to avoid the arbitrary
bifurcation of the gifted and non-gifted, and that
we should label services instead of labeling the
child, whereas others view this movement as
abandoning the very raison d'etre for gifted
programs. The social-emotional impact of labeling
aside, the issue is also that of restrictiveness
discussed earlier: how inclusive and flexible gifted
programs can be. On the one hand, programs such
as Talent Search are highly selective in nature;
some cutoffs (e.g., ninety-ninth percentile) are
necessary to determine one's qualification, and
intensive programs can be implemented with
relatively high efficiency. 64

65. On the other hand, various forms of enrichment
and high-end learning can be open to a larger
pool of able students, even to all students, and
qualification can be determined in a flexible
manner to maximize opportunities for
participation, with gifted programs justified on
the basis of needs (e.g., substituting regular
curriculum with more advanced materials)
rather than status (being identified as gifted), as
is the case with the Revolving Door
Identification Model.
65

66. As mentioned above, various forms of grouping are
necessary to provide special services for gifted and
talented children. It is not difficult to justify grouping as a
way of providing an optimal educational environment for
gifted and talented children. The challenge is justifying
the services within the context of the whole educational
system. Ability grouping practices are vulnerable to
charges such as favoritism or elitism in a democratic
society and egalitarian culture. The problem is
exacerbated by the fact that ethnic minority (except
Asian-American) students and students from families of
low social economic status are underrepresented in gifted
education programs in the United States. Until gifted
education is well integrated into the whole education
system, its identity and functions become better defined,
and its pursuit of excellence is balanced with concerns
over equity, it will continue to be the target of criticism.
66

67. On a positive note, gifted education has proven to be
a vital force in American education. In many respects,
programs for the gifted have been the true
laboratories of our nation's schools because they
have presented ideal opportunities for testing new
ideas and experimenting with potential solutions to
long-standing educational problems. Programs for
high potential students have been an especially fertile
place for experimentation because such programs
usually are not encumbered by prescribed curriculum
guides or traditional methods of instruction. It was
within the context of these programs that the
thinking skills movement first took hold in American
education, and the pioneering work of notable
theorists such as Benjamin Bloom, Howard Gardner,
and Robert Sternberg first gained the attention of the
education community in the 1980s.
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68. Other developments that had their origins in
special programs are currently being examined
for general practice. These developments include
a focus on concept rather than skill learning, the
use of interdisciplinary curriculum and theme-
based studies, student portfolios, performance
assessment, cross-grade grouping, alternative
scheduling patterns, and perhaps most
important, opportunities for students to
exchange traditional roles as lesson-learners and
doers-of-exercises for more challenging and
demanding roles that require hands-on learning,
firsthand investigations, and the application of
knowledge and thinking skills to complex
problems.
68

69. Research in a variety of gifted education programs has
fostered the development of instructional procedures and
programming alternatives that emphasize the need (1) to
provide a broad range of advanced level enrichment
experiences for all students, and (2) to use the many and
varied ways that students respond to these experiences as
stepping stones for relevant follow-up on the parts of
individuals or small groups. These approaches are not viewed
as new ways to identify who is or is not gifted. Rather, the
process simply identifies how subsequent opportunities,
resources, and encouragement can be provided to support
continuous escalations of student involvement in both
required and self-selected activities. This orientation has
allowed many students opportunities to develop high levels
of creative and productive accomplishments that otherwise
would have been denied through traditional special program
models. Practices that have been a mainstay of many special
programs for the gifted are being absorbed into general
education by reform models designed to upgrade the
performance of all students. 69

70. This integration of gifted program know-how is viewed as
a favorable development, since the adoption of many
special program practices is indicative of the viability and
usefulness of both the know-how of special programs
and the role gifted education can and should play in total
school improvement. This broader and more flexible
approach reflects a democratic ideal that accommodates
the full range of individual differences in the entire
student population, and it opens the door to
programming models that develop the talent potentials of
many at-risk students who traditionally have been
excluded from anything but the most basic types of
curricular experiences. This integration of gifted and
talented education into the general education system is
beginning to redefine the ways in which we develop the
many and various potentials of the nation's youths.
70

71. 71

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