19. 2.البحث مقدمة
• The introduction leads the reader from a general
subject area to a particular topic of inquiry.
• It establishes the scope, context, and significance of
the research being conducted by :
• Summarizing current understanding and
background information about the topic,
• stating the purpose of the work in the form of
the research problem supported by a hypothesis
or a set of questions,
• explaining briefly the methodological approach
used to examine the research problem,
• highlighting the potential outcomes your study
can reveal, and
• outlining the remaining structure and
organization of the paper.
20. Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must
answer for the reader these four questions:
1) What I’m studying?
2) Why this topic is important to investigate?
3) What do I know about this topic before I did this study?
4) How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of
understanding?
According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction:
1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a
foundation for understanding the research problem;
2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient
consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and,
3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of
your research.
21. These are general phases associated with writing an introduction:
• 1. Establish an area to research by:
• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.
• 2. Identify a research niche by:
• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
• 3. Place your research within the research niche by:
• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.
22. 3.البحث مشكلة(research problem)
A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area
of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing
practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a
vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.
مش أن ريب وال ،دراسته في عليه العلمي الباحث عليه يعتمد الذي والعمود المحور العلمي البحث مشكلة تعدالبحث كلة
في خلل عن تنتج قد الدراسة فمشكلة ،العلمي الباحث ذهن في تتشكل التي التساؤالت عن عبارة العلميعلمي موضوع
ال المخاطر حجم من لتقليص حل إلى الوصول أجل من وكذلك حدوثه وعوامل أسباب توضيح إلى ويحتاج معينعن ناتجة
ب الموضوع بذات االختصاص ذوي الباحثين تلزم شأنها من معينة ظاهرة في غموض عن تنتج أنها أو ،الخلل هذاإجراء
الغموض هذا عن الكشف أجل من الالزمة التحريات.
23. The purpose of a problem statement
• Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied.
The reader is oriented to the significance of the study.
• Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to
follow. It offers a concise statement about the purpose of your paper.
• Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters
of what is to be investigated.
• Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what
is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the
findings will present this information.
24. A problem statement in the social sciences should
contain:
• A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the
study,
• A declaration of originality [e.g., mentioning a knowledge void or a
lack of clarity about a topic that will be revealed in the literature
review],
• An indication of the central focus of the study [establishing the
boundaries of analysis], and
• An explanation of the study's significance or the benefits to be
derived from investigating the research problem.
30. What Makes a Good Research Statement?
The statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following
features:
1. Compelling Topic مقنع موضوع
The problem chosen should be one that motivates you to address it but simple curiosity is not a good
enough reason to pursue a research study because this does not indicate significance. The problem
that you choose to explore must be important to you, but it must also be viewed as important by your
readers and to a the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of
your study.
2. Supports Multiple Perspectives
The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation
and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb in the social sciences is that a good
research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made
up of reasonable people.
3. Researchability
This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good research statement. It
seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex
research project and realize that you don't have enough prior research to draw from for your analysis.
There's nothing inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research problems that
can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you.
31. Types of
Variables
Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that
are measured. These variables are expected to
change as a result of an experimental
manipulation of the independent variable or
variables. It is the presumed effect.
Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the
other variables you are trying to measure. It
refers to the condition of an experiment that is
systematically manipulated by the investigator. It
is the presumed cause.
32. Theoretical Framework
• Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases,
to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of
a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that
explains why the research problem under study exists.
• A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and
reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular
study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and
concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader
areas of knowledge being considered.
33. The theoretical framework strengthens the
study in the following ways:
1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to
evaluate them critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge.
Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and
choice of research methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to
address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually
transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to
generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A
theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a
phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key
variables might differ and under what circumstances
34. Developing the Framework
1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem anchors your
entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research.
Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
3. Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research
problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
4. List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these
variables into independent and dependent categories.
5. Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings
and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key
variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance
to your research.
59. Educational
Measurement
• Measurement: assignment of
numbers to differentiate values of a
variable
• Evaluation: procedures for collecting
information and using it to make
decisions for which some value is
placed on the results
• Assessment - multiple meanings
• Measurement of a variable
• Evaluation
• Diagnosis of individual difficulties
• Procedures to gather information
on student performance
60. PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT FOR RESEARCH
• Obtain information about the variables being studied
• Provide a standard format for recording observations,
performances, or other responses of participants
• Provide for a quantitative summary of the results from many
participants
61. Educational Measurement
Four measurement scales
• Nominal – categories
• Race, gender, types of schools (e.g., public, private,
parochial)
• Ordinal - ordered categories
• Finishing position in a race, grade levels
• Interval - equal intervals between numbers on the scale
• Test scores, achievement levels
• Ratio - equal intervals and an absolute zero (0)
• Height, weight, time
62. Types of Quantitative Measures
• Four types
• Tests
• Questionnaires
• Observations
• Interviews
63. Tests
A test is an instrument that requires
participants to complete a cognitive task
by responding to a standard set of
questions
• Score interpretation
1. Norm-referenced - individual scores are
interpreted relative to the scores of others in
a well defined norming group
• John’s scores places him in the 95th percentile
• Sally’s score is in the bottom quartile
2. Criterion-referenced - individual scores are
interpreted in terms of the student’s
performance relative to some standard or
criterion
• Jeanne passed the Louisiana High School Graduate
Exit Exam
• Sammy did not make the cutoff for being promoted
to the 7th grade
64. Questionnaires
• A questionnaire is an instrument containing
statements designed to obtain a
participant’s perceptions, attitudes, beliefs,
values, opinions, or other non-cognitive
traits
• Scales - a continuum that describes
participant’s responses to a statement
• Likert
• Semantic Differential
• Checklists
• Ranked items
65. Observations
• Observations - direct observations of
behaviors
• Natural or controlled settings
• Structured or unstructured
observations
• Detached or involved observers
66. Interviews
• Interviews involve orally questioning participants and recording
their responses
• Types of questions
• Structured
• Semi-structured
• Unstructured
• Leading
• Sources of concern
• Bias
• Contamination
• Interviewer characteristics
• Age, race, gender, etc.
• Conduct of the interview
• Response recordings
67. Cont…
Interviews
• Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Expensive
• Small samples
• Subjective
• Advantages
• Establish rapport
• Enhance motivation
• Clarify responses through additional
questioning
• Capture the depth and richness of
responses
• Allow for flexibility
• Reduce “no response” and/or
“neutral” responses
68. Validity of Measurement
• Validity: the extent to which inferences
are appropriate, meaningful, and
useful
• Refers to how well a test measures
what it is purported to measure.
69. Types of Validity
• Content”: related to objectives and their
sampling.
• “Construct”: referring to the theory
underlying the target.
• “Criterion”: related to concrete criteria in
the real world. It can be concurrent or
predictive.
• “Concurrent”: correlating high with
another measure already validated.
• “Predictive”: Capable of anticipating some
later measure.
• “Face”: related to the test overall
appearance.
70. Reliability
Is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable
and consistent results.
Researchers use four methods to check the reliability of a test:
- the test-retest method,
- alternate forms,
- internal consistency, and
- inter-scorer reliability.
71. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Reliability
• Measurement
• Reliability coefficients range from 0.00 to 1.00 regardless of
the formula used to calculate them
• 0.00 indicates no reliability or consistency
• 1.00 indicates total reliability or consistency
While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to
be reliable, it also needs to be valid.
72. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Five types of reliability evidence
• Stability (i.e., test-retest)
• Testing the same subject using the same test on two occasions
• Limitation - carryover effects from the first to second
administration of the test
• Equivalence (i.e., parallel form)
• Testing the same subject with two parallel (i.e., equal) forms of
the same test taken at the same time
• Limitation - difficulty in creating parallel forms
73. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Equivalence and stability
• Testing the same participants with two forms of the same
test taken at different times
• Limitation - difficulty in creating parallel forms
• Internal consistency
• Testing the same subject with one test and “artificially”
splitting the test into two halves
• Limitations - must have a minimum of ten (10) questions
74. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Internal consistency (continued)
• Two forms
• KR 20
• Dichotomously scored (i.e., right or wrong) items
• Typical of cognitive measures
• Cronbach alpha
• Non-dichotomously scored (e.g., strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree) items
• Typical of non-cognitive measures
75. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Importance of reliability
• If the results are to have any value, reliability of the
measurement of a variable must exist
• Established prior to conducting the research (e.g., pilot
study)
• Necessary but not sufficient condition for validity (i.e., to be
valid, an instrument must be reliable, but a reliable
instrument is not necessarily valid)
76. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Conditions affecting reliability
• Length of the test (i.e., longer tests are typically more reliable)
• Participants
• Greater reliability with heterogeneous samples
• Scores for older participants are typically more reliable
than those for younger children
• Trait being measured (i.e., cognitive traits are more reliable
than affective characteristics)
77. Cont… Reliability of Measurement
• Enhancing reliability
• Standardized administration procedures (e.g., directions,
conditions, etc.)
• Appropriate reading level
• Reasonable length of the testing period
• Counterbalancing the order of testing if several tests are
being given
Editor's Notes
KR21: Used for dichotomously scored items that are all about the same difficulty