This presentation is from the course “Primary Production” of the FAO Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Toolbox. Readers are encouraged to visit the online resource for a full learning experience. © FAO: http://www.fao.org

1. This presentation is from the course “Primary Production” of the
FAO Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Toolbox
(http://www.fao.org/good-hygiene-practices-toolbox)
Readers are encouraged to visit the online resource for a full
learning experience.
Food Hygiene Issues in Primary
Production

2. Food Hygiene Issues in Primary Production:
Presentation Objectives
The objectives of this presentation are:
– To provide an overview of the topic “Food Hygiene Issues in
Primary Production” as covered in the FAO GHP Training
Toolbox.
– To underline the importance of identifying potential food
safety hazards in primary production and the need to control
or reduce these hazards at this stage in the value chain.
– To enable concerned stakeholders to recognize potential
food safety hazards in primary production and to provide
practical guidance on minimizing these hazards.
– To provide information resources that facilitate the
preparation of training sessions on good hygiene in primary
production.

3. Primary Production: Presentation Outline
1. Introduction
• Definition of primary production
• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards
• Explaining classes of hazards
• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or
contaminants in foods
2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal
products
3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques

4. Definition of primary production
• Primary production is defined as those steps in the food
chain up to and including harvesting, slaughter, and
milking
• Hunting and fishing wild animals, as well as collecting
wild crops is considered part of primary production
• Primary production needs to be managed in a way that
ensures that products supplied are safe and suitable for
food and/or animal feed

5. Be aware of inappropriate farm production
technologies
Many of the safety deficiencies
caused by inappropriate farm
production technologies and handling
practices are not visible on primary
produce and cannot be corrected
during food processing.
Examples are pesticide and veterinary
drug residues, mycotoxin and
microbial contaminations.
Identifying potential food safety
hazards upon delivery to the food
business is difficult. Therefore,
prevention of contamination of
primary produce is always favoured
over correction.
Mould on corn that may contain mycotoxins
Worker spraying pesticides

6. Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
Efforts to assure food safety must start at farm level. To ensure this
requirement a multiplicity of GAP codes, standards and regulations
have been developed in recent years.
A GAP approach to agriculture involves the establishment of guidelines
or standards for agricultural producers and post-farm handlers as well
as the monitoring of these standards.
Good Agricultural Practices cover a wide spectrum of on-farm and post-
farm activities related to food safety and food quality, the environmental
impacts of agriculture and often various social objectives including
animal health and welfare and agricultural workers rights.
This presentation deals with the subset of GAP issues affecting safety
and quality.

7. Assuring GAP on the farm
The following key controls are selected examples of GAP controls that
are relevant for food safety.
– Control contamination from air, soil, water, feedstuffs, fertilizers (including
natural fertilizers), pesticides, veterinary drugs.
– Control plant and animal health, so that it does not pose a threat to human
health through consumption, or adversely affect the suitability of the food.
– Protect food sources from faecal and other contamination by ensuring the
appropriate management of waste (human, animal and chemical), and
store all chemicals (and other harmful substances) away from food
materials.
– Segregate food and food ingredients that are unfit for further processing or
consumption.

8. Classes of hazards to consider in primary
production
Hazards that may affect food safety of plant and animal products during production and
handling are grouped as follows:
1. Chemical
– Pesticide Residues
– Environmental contaminants
– Veterinary drugs and contaminants from animal feed
– Natural compounds, such as mycotoxins and nitrates
2. Microbiological
– Pathogenic bacteria
– Water and foodborne viruses
– Zoonotic parasites
3. Physical
– Foreign matter such as dust, stones, needles, seeds, vegetable matter
Codex definition of the term “hazard”: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or
condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect.

9. Maximum limits for residues or contaminants in
foods
Residues from chemicals used in primary production or other chemical
or microbial hazards of a primary product can pose serious health
problems.
National authorities establish maximum limits for these hazards based
on international recommendations and implement programs to ensure
that food chain operators comply to these limits.
– Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) define the maximum concentration of a
chemical or compound that is legally permitted in any type of food product.
– Extraneous Maximum Residue Limits (EMRLs) refer to compounds
banned for agricultural uses, which are persistent in the environment with
potential to result in residues in food and feed.
– Maximum Levels (MLs) define specified contaminants and natural
toxicants in foods.
– Microbiological Criteria are used to formulate requirements to indicate the
required microbiological status of foods at different stages of food
production.

10. 1. Introduction
• Definition of primary production
• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards
• Explaining classes of hazards
• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or
contaminants in foods
2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal
products
3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques
Primary Production: Presentation Outline

11. Chemical hazards in crops: Agricultural
Chemicals
Agricultural chemicals are applied
either as
– insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, or
desiccant used in the field, or
– post-harvest treatments to preserve
shelf-life (i.e. fungicides).
Certain chemicals are intended for
use only on selected crops. Farmers
must use only authorized agricultural
chemicals. In addition, the chemicals
must be used according to
manufacturer’s instructions and for
the intended purpose.
If good practices are applied MRL will
not be exceeded.
Application of agricultural chemicals, Lao PDR
Farmer field schools
help farmers to apply
GAP consistent with
Integrated Pest
Management (IPM)
principles.

12. Chemical hazards in crops: persistent chemicals
I
Soils can be contaminated with persistent
chemicals deriving from
– the natural occurrence of heavy metals
such as Cadmium,
– the presence of technically enhanced
chemicals of agricultural/industrial origin
such as DDT or mercury.
These compounds or their metabolites are
stable and cannot be degraded or
destroyed.
They enter the food chain by plant
interception and through plant uptake and
present a hazard to human health.
Maximum limits define their tolerable limits
in foods.

13. Persistent chemicals cannot be removed from foodstuffs. Only a
preventive approach that eliminates or controls contamination on the
farm will be effective in guaranteeing safe products.
Codex Codes of Practice offer relevant advice on how to prevent the
presence of toxic chemicals in foods. Example are:
– Codex Code of Practice Concerning Source Directed Measures to Reduce
Contamination of Foods with Chemicals (CAC/RCP 49-2001) deals with the
major sources of environmental chemicals.
– Codex Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Lead
Contamination in Foods (CAC/RCP 56-2004) provides recommended
practices based on GAP and GMP to control contamination of foodstuffs
with lead.
Chemical hazards in crops: persistent chemicals
II
Avoid planting in contaminated areas and processing produce
from polluted sources!

14. Chemical hazards in crops: mycotoxins
Molds produce toxic substances
called mycotoxins which are a major
food safety threat.
Mycotoxins can occur at any stage
throughout the food-chain and affect
a wide number of food commodities
such as cereals, nuts, spices, fruit,
coffee, milk and alcoholic beverages.
Codex provides recommended
practices to prevent contamination
with mycotoxins specific to cereals
(CAC/RCP 51-2003), apple juice
(CAC/RCP 50-2003), peanuts (CAC/RCP
22-1979), feedingstuffs (CAC/RCP 45-
1997), tree nuts (CAC/RCP 6-1972),
wine (CAC/RCP 63-2007), dried figs
(CAC/RCP 65-2008), and coffee
(CAC/RCP 69-2009).
Moldy peanuts may be contaminated
with mycotoxins
Mycotoxins can not be inhibited
through processing steps.
Preventive measures such as
moisture management to limit
growth of molds are the most
effective way to lower the risk
of intoxications.

15. Chemical hazards in crops: Nitrates
High nitrate levels are of concern in
leafy vegetables, roots and tuber
crops.
A known source of nitrate
contamination is the re-use of
fertilizer bags for food storage or
transport.
The negative food safety implication
of high nitrate content in foods is that
under certain conditions they may be
converted to compounds which can
cause cancer.
As a general rule for any commodity
the re-use of packaging previously
used for non-food items should be
avoided.
Storage of rice in sacks previously used for
fertilizer

16. Microbial hazards in crops
Fresh produce can become microbiologically contaminated at any point
along the farm-to-table food chain.
Main sources for microbiological contaminations are:
– Water
– Manure
– Workers
– Dirty tools and transport vehicles
– Interrupted or lacking cool-chain
Microorganisms are of particular concern in products that are
consumed with little or no processing. This includes fruits and
vegetables. Prevention of microbial contamination at all steps in the
farm-to-table continuum is recognized as the best measure of control.
The Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
(CAC/RCP 53-2003) addresses relevant good practices.

17. Microbial contamination paths for crops I
Contamination through water
Water is used during growing for irrigation, and after harvest for washing produce, as well
as for cleaning field containers.
The quality of water is of particular concern when it comes into direct contact with the
edible portion of the produce.
Measures to limit microbial contamination of crops through water include:
– identification and contol of the source of the water,
– localized irrigation techniques,
– wastewater irrigation cessation period prior to harvest.
WHO/UNEP/FAO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater
Volume 2 provide proven methods of water management in agriculture.
Guidance on how to prevent postharvest microbial contamination of fresh fruit and
vegetables is provided online by the University of California Davis .

18. Microbial contamination paths for crops II
Contamination through pests
Birds, rodents and domesic animals
can contaminate products through
feces.
Insects such as flies and dung
beetles are also known carriers of
bacteria.
Preventing farm animals, pets and
pests from roaming freely on crop
fields is an effective measure to
reduce microbial contamination of
crops.
Contamination through manure
Animal manure is a known source of
microbial contamination of crops.
Composting is an effective way of
reducing the microbial hazards of raw
manure. The high temperatures
reached during composting will kill
most pathogens.

19. Microbial contamination paths for crops III
Contamination through people
People are a source of
microbiological contamination.
When fresh vegetables and fruits
are harvested, adequate facilities
for hand washing and hygienic
toilet facilities must be provided to
prevent microbiological
contamination.
Training in personal hygiene
standards should be conducted.
These efforts could be enforced
by providing on-site signaling.
Seasonal workers harvesting lettuce

20. Microbiological hazards and BSE in animal
husbandry
Cattle, other ruminants, poultry and swine are
important reservoirs for bacteria, viruses and
zoonotic parasites.
Examples of pathogenic microorganisms are:
– Bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter
– Zoonotic parasites such as Trichinella spiralis (a disease-causing round-
worm)
– Viruses such as avian influenza
In addition, the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has
emerged as a new type of hazard.
Care should be taken to ensure that
– sick animals are separated from the herd and treated,
– animal handlers do not infect animals,
– outbreaks of illness in herds and flocks are rapidly communicated to the
authorities, and
– rendered ruminants are not fed back to ruminants.

21. Uncontrolled milking method
More hygienic methods of milking will reduce
quantity of bacteria in milk pail
Hygienic methods can prevent microbial hazards
in animal husbandry
Bacteria and viruses are transferred
between animals and people. A
principle source for many such
infections in humans is the handling
of animals and the consumption of
animal produce such as milk.
Good hygiene practices are essential
for the handling of animals and
animal products.
Codex Codes of Practice for meat
(CAC/RCP 58-2005) and milk and milk
products (CAC/RCP 57-2004) cover
relevant hygiene provisions.

22. Veterinary treatments as a food safety hazard
Veterinary Medicines
Residues of veterinary medicines, growth
promoters and performance enhancers
in foods of animal origin are a potential
threat to human health.
Only substances that are permitted by
law should be used to treat sick animals.
Recommendations on the dose and
mode of treatment as well all withdrawal
periods need to be respected.
Proof of rigorous traceability must be
demanded from suppliers.
Codex Guidelines for the use of
veterinary drugs (CAC/GL 71-2009) outline
systems to ensure that the exposure of
food producing animals to veterinary
drugs does not pose a risk to human
health.

23. Chemical Hazards in animal feed
Chemicals from industrial and
environmental sources can contaminate
feed and make the animal or the animal
product unfit for human consumption.
Several instances of feeds contaminated
with dioxins, lead or mycotoxins have been
documented.
Codex Code of Practice on Good Animal
Feeding (CAC/RCP 54-2004) establishes a
feed safety system for food producing
animals.
Codex Code of Practice for the Reduction
of Aflatoxin B1 in Feed for Milk Producing
Animals (CAC/RCP 45-1997) presents
recommended practices to ensure the
lowest possible level of toxigens in milk.

24. Applying good hygienic layout and design
principles in primary production
Important safety precautions at primary production level
include the hygienic layout and design of primary
production facilities.
Measures of control could include
– introduction of cleanliness barriers such as boot dips,
– strict control of visitors’ contact to other farms,
– strictest barriers to prevent dirty equipment from entering clean
areas (i.e. one-way transport crates for animals, fruit etc.; cleaning
equipment for each hygiene zone, etc.),
– highest level of pest control.

25. Chemical hazards in fisheries and aquaculture
Fish habitats are exposed to varying amounts
of environmental contaminants.
Chemicals, organochloric compounds and
heavy metals may accumulate in products that
can cause public health problems.
Veterinary drug residues can occur in
aquaculture products when correct withdrawal
times are not followed or when the sale and
use of these compounds are not controlled.
Contrarily to wild fish harvesting aquaculture
systems can be monitored to control
contamination of harvested fish products.

26. Microbial hazards in fisheries and aquaculture
Biological food safety hazards associated
with fish, shellfish and other aquatic
invertebrates are:
– Parasites such as fish-borne zoonotic
parasites which are a growing problem in
aquaculture.
– Bacteria such as Vibrio species that are a
common costal contaminant.
– Viruses such as hepatitis A virus that occur
in waters contaminated with feces.
– Biotoxins which are either linked to a
poisonous fish species or to the ingestion of
toxic organisms such as toxic phytoplankton
(see FAO Publication on biotoxins)
The Codex Code of Practice for Fish and
Fishery Products (CAC/RCP 52-2003)
provides guidance for the elaboration of fish
and shellfish process management systems.
Soaking oysters in antimicrobial solution as a
safety measure because the water they are
grown in is potentially contaminated

27. 1. Introduction
• Definition of primary production
• Introducing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards
• Explaining classes of hazards
• Introducing concept of maximum limits for residues or
contaminants in foods
2. Overview of potential hazards in crops and animal
products
3. Suggested supplier monitoring techniques
Primary Production: Presentation Outline

28. You are now aware of the potential hazards
Section 2 of this presentation identified a number of
hazards in major food groups that are known to arise
during primary production activities and present a problem
to food safety.
In addition, relevant good practices have been indicated
that are required in primary production to avoid or reduce
the incidence of hazards with the aim to guarantee safe
food.

29. From hazard identification to control measures
This next section addresses the responsibilities of
downstream operators.
Suppliers and food processors only will be able to
guarantee safe products to their respective customers if
effective control measures that cover their sources of
primary products are in place.
Such measures include the established techniques that are
presented in the following slides.

30. Food businesses must monitor their suppliers
1. Develop specifications for each raw material or ingredient in
conjunction with the suppliers and get agreement to the
specification.
2. Source raw materials or ingredients from suppliers with a history of
compliance to agreed requirements (either to the food business, or
to the industry sector).
3. Request a supplier declaration for each consignment of raw
materials/ingredients that attests to the meeting of sector specific
food safety and suitability requirements. Examples are:
– withdrawal periods for chemicals prior to harvest
– product from apparently healthy animals, or
– in the case of shellfish harvests from growing areas that are suitable

31. Supplier monitoring – continued
4. Physically inspect/audit primary production processes to
confirm that food safety hazards are being effectively managed,
or
5. know what type of agricultural practices the farmer follows or
demand from the supplier that he is aware of the followed
practices,
or
6. demand verification that the raw materials originated from a
farm that follows internationally recognized standard such as
GAP. This may be via certification from a government agency
or a recognized third party audit body.
7. Request a certificate of analysis for raw materials/ingredients
on a batch basis to verify that specification parameters are met.

32. Know your suppliers
If food businesses establish and maintain good linkages with
their suppliers these will:
– understand potential hazards to food safety during production and
handling on the farm,
– develop and implement practices and systems that will prevent these
hazards from affecting the food,
– require and monitor compliance to these practices on the farm.

33. Safety hazards in primary production:
Conclusions
Chemical, microbiological and physical hazards during primary
production can pose a significant threat to food safety and suitability.
Safe plant products destined for food or for animal feed play a
significant role in ensuring a safe food system.
Food raw materials carrying potential hazards from primary production
cannot always be reliably identified during receipt at a food business
and separated.
Many of the hazards cannot be corrected by processing nore can
microbial hazards be completely eliminated in production.
Food producers must therefore carefully choose and monitor their
suppliers. Often suppliers are required to restrict their sources to GAP-
certified farms.

34. This presentation is from the course “Primary Production” of the FAO
Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Toolbox.
Readers are encouraged to visit the online resource for a full
learning experience.
You have reached the end of the presentation
“Food Hygiene Issues in Primary Production”