Dissertation- The Art of Balance- Cultural Diplomacy in Museums- Aug 2011

The Art of Balance
Cultural Diplomacy in Museums
Erin Martin
MA, Cultural, Policy and Management
August 2011
This thesis is submitted to City University London as part of the requirements for the
award of the MA Culture, Policy and Management

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement i
Abstract ii
1. Introduction 1
2. Research 2
2.1 Literature Review 2
2.2 Purpose of Research 4
2.3 Methodology 5
2.4 Limitations 5
3 Cultural Diplomacy 7
3.1 What is Cultural Diplomacy? 7
3.2 Cultural Diplomacy in the US 10
3.3 Cultural Diplomacy in Great Britain 13
3.4 Moving Forward with Cultural Diplomacy in Museums 16
4 Museums 18
4.1 What Does “Museum” Mean? 18
4.2 Brief Background and History of Museums 18
4.3 Museums and Cultural Diplomacy 19
4.4 Moving Forward 21
5 Ai Weiwei: A Case Study 23
5.1 Who is Ai Weiwei? 23
5.2 Ai Weiwei and the Chinese Political System 23
5.3 Ai Weiwei, Museums and Cultural Diplomacy 26
6 Conclusion and Findings 29
6.1 Cultural Diplomacy 29
6.2 Museum. Society and Cultural Diplomacy 31
7 Appendices 34
7.1 Brief Background and History of Museums 34

7.2 Who is Ai Weiwei? 36
8 Bibliography 40

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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor Vicky Woollard for her guidance and input
during our tutorials and throughout this process. I would also like to thank my mother, Caral
Martin for all of her love, help and encouragement during my studies at City University.
Lastly, I would like to thank my friends, both old and new for their support and camaraderie.

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Abstract
The Art of Balance: Cultural Diplomacy in Museums
Building strong relationships with other nations is extremely important. While it is not
possible to change government policies and it is not easy to force other nations to follow
other nation’s policies without using extreme force, nations can find common ground and
learn about other nation’s values and culture through cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy
can be used to help promote nation states, encourage dialogue and build long lasting
mutually beneficial relations. Cultural institutions such as museums, can lead the way in this
endeavour due to their reputations and history of international relations through art
exhibitions and educational initiatives. This dissertation provides an in-depth look into
cultural diplomacy, museums and the relationship between the two. A case study involving
Chinese artist Ai Weiwei will be used to provide a present day example of the power and
influence of cultural diplomacy in the museum.
Erin Martin
(Words: 10,492)

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1. Introduction
Cultural diplomacy is a subject that has been written about many times yet can sometimes
be difficult to define and implement. There has been much debate among politicians about
the need for cultural diplomacy. Some politicians question the validity of the influence that
culture and art have on the international political arena; while others view cultural diplomacy
as an absolute necessity, but struggle to find the right balance of government involvement.
Too much government involvement can make it seem as if cultural diplomacy is being used
as a tool to aid direct government policy, thereby exploiting art and culture, turning them into
propaganda. If there is no government involvement, it could be seen as another art
institution showing art abroad with no message. The goal of cultural diplomacy is to build
mutually beneficial and long lasting relationships but, there has to be a balance - a delicate
balance of powers to ensure the right message is communicated and received by the
intended audience.
For centuries, museums have played an important role in societies around the world. They
are cultural institutions in which people are able to come, learn, and enjoy art. Some
museums have gained a reputation not just for their collection of art but also for the way they
conduct business. Depending on the political structure where the museum is located, it may
receive support from the government or support from private and corporate funders. Over
the years museums have had to adopt and change with the times. Growing, hosting and
staging international shows has meant developing international strategies, which in turn has
meant museums, like the art they acquire, can sometimes become involved in politics.
The relationship between cultural diplomacy and museums is one that exists in varying
degrees depending on the institution. This dissertation will set out to examine cultural
diplomacy, the place of the museum in society and in cultural diplomacy. To begin, cultural
diplomacy will be defined and explained. In addition, background information will be provided
on how cultural diplomacy is perceived in the United States (US) and in Great Britain. Next,

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an explanation of what it means to be called a museum will be provided as well as the initial
purpose for the creation of the museum. An examination of the evolution of the museums
from their early years leading up to the present will be used to reveal their impact on society
and to explore how museums can and do play a role in cultural diplomacy, most notably
through art exhibitions.
Context on this topic will be provided through an explanation of cultural diplomacy and its
place in the US and in Great Britain. Next, historical background on the premise and ideals
of the earliest museums as well as examples of museums using cultural diplomacy will be
laid out. A case study will be used as an in-depth analysis of the relationship between
cultural diplomacy and museums. The case study will be on Chinese artist Ai Weiwei, his
recent detention and the reaction of museums to this human rights violation. This case study
along with information and examples of cultural diplomacy and museums will help to further
explain the connection between the two.
2. Research and Methodology
2.1 Literature Review
Information may not be found on this specific topic, but there is literature on cultural
diplomacy and museums, their place in society. During the research process, there was no
lack of cultural diplomacy related material. However, museums themselves were seldom
used as examples. The exception to this is Art/Museums: International Relations Where we
least Expect it by Christine Sylvester. The focus of the book was more on how art,
exhibitions and museums worked on an international level, with examples of specific art and
exhibitions being used more so than the museums as a whole. The cultural diplomacy link
came from much of the historical context provided on the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in
New York, USA, which corresponds with cultural diplomacy efforts taking place in the US
during the same time period. This information on MOMA and on museums will be discussed
in-depth in Chapter 4.

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Also included in Chapter 4 is a brief history and background on museums. One of the more
frequently cited books on the early years of the museums, The Birth of the Museum: History,
Theory, Politics. The author, Tony Bennett provides information on how museums were
created to be institutions that civilize the lower class people and to ultimately make society
better. The elite members of society held much political clout and used the museums as a
means to sway society to their advantage. Along with Bennett’s take on the early years in
the museums, Jonah Siegel also provides a picture of museums in his book The Emergence
of the Modern Museum. Siegel provides historical background, from the 16th
century to the
19th
century in England, detailing events that helped shape the modern museums such as
the Great Exhibition of 1851, the first national museums, the British Museum, that opened in
1753 and the Dulwich Picture Gallery, the first purpose built art gallery designed by Sir John
Sloane, which opened in 1813.
There was no shortage of cultural diplomacy literature as it is a very broad topic spanning
decades. One of the most recent books written on the discipline is Searching for a Cultural
Diplomacy. This compilation of essays written by experts on cultural diplomacy provides a
variety of examples, most notably the article by Gienow-Hecht and Donfried titled, The
Models of Cultural Diplomacy. Gienow-Hecht and Donfried provide a great deal of historical
information on cultural diplomacy both in the US and in Europe. Another author on the topic
of cultural diplomacy, John Brown, discusses the lack of cultural diplomacy efforts in his
article Arts Diplomacy: The Neglected Aspect of Cultural Diplomacy. In this article, Brown
discusses the US Government’s involvement, or lack thereof in cultural diplomacy, or as he
prefers to refer to it as ‘arts diplomacy’. Brown also provides interesting details in regards to
the US and their past efforts in arts diplomacy including the CIA’s involvement during the
Cold War. More details on this topic can be found in Chapter 3.
Both the US and Great Britain see the need for cultural diplomacy. Demos, a think tank
organization based in Great Britain, constructed a report on British cultural diplomacy in
2007. The report discusses Great Britain and their cultural exchanges through the British

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Council as well as the impact the 2012 Olympic Games will have on the cultural standing of
Great Britain. Demos also make recommendations on how the British Government can work
to improve cultural diplomacy efforts while still maintaining a balance between culture and
politics. For the US, the cultural diplomacy situation is very different. The Linchpin Report,
written in September 2005 by an advisory committee on cultural diplomacy for the US State
Department, provides counsel to the Secretary of State on how to improve cultural
diplomacy efforts. These recommendations include (but are not limited to) improving funding,
advanced training on cultural diplomacy for those working in public affairs and expanding
international cultural exchange programs. The US has had a very interesting relationship
with cultural diplomacy, one which will examined further in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.
To provide context for the case study on Ai Weiwei, it was imperative to research China’s
cultural diplomacy background as well as information on Ai and his relationship with the
Chinese Government. Articles from publication such as the New York Times, The Museums
Journal, The Guardian and other news and online journal outlets were used to provide up-to-
date information on Ai Weiwei’s situation as many events have taken place in the last few
months.
2.2 Purpose of Research
From this research, it is hoped that the reader will gain an understanding of cultural
diplomacy and the impact it has on museums and, in turn, the role museums can play as
cultural diplomats when situations arise that affect artists who exhibit, or have in the past,
exhibited in their museum. Research on this subject is divided into three parts. First, an
definition and explanation of cultural diplomacy will be provided and used as context for the
US and British perspective on key topics. Next, a definition, brief history, and examples of
museums and cultural diplomacy in museums will be given. Lastly, a case study on Ai
Weiwei and current events will be used to provide modern day support on the research topic.

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The following questions were observed while writing this dissertation and it is hoped an
explanation for them will be gained from reading this research.
 What is Cultural Diplomacy?
 What does it mean to be a museum and what role do museums play in society?
 How can the relationship between cultural diplomacy and museums be illustrated
best?
 What responsibilities do museums have when it comes to political issues that affect
artists who exhibit in their space?
2.3 Methodology
The methodology for this research is qualitative and is derived mostly from desk research
both in libraries as well as from the Internet. The majority of the research and evidence to
support the hypothesis comes from books, articles and government documents. Web articles
specifically will be used when discussing Ai Weiwei and his recent detention and release as
the topic has unfolded over the last few months and Web articles will provide the most up-to-
date information. The framework for this research will be an informational examination of
museums as a whole, not sticking to any specific departments but to examine museums as
cultural institutions and how they fit into society .To provide depth, political issues will be
used to provide the reader an explanation for the role of the museum in society with respect
to cultural diplomacy and politics.
To keep this research focused, acquisitions, displaying art and other topics relating to the
daily running of the museum will not be discussed. Repatriation of objects by museums will
also not be discussed as the art work has been acquired in recent years from a live artist.
Museums being discussed will be mainly museums housing pieces from Ai or that have
exhibitions of Chinese artefacts and are located in the US or Great Britain.
2.4 Limitations

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Possible challenges will be finding material to support the argument. With part of the topic
being very US-based, it may be a challenge to find materials if they are not carried in British
libraries. The subjects covered in this dissertation are very broad and can cover many areas.
Due to constraints on the amount of text allowed, only areas that pertain to this topic will be
covered.

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3. Cultural Diplomacy
3.1 What is Cultural Diplomacy?
To begin, it is first important to set up a clear definition of what the term cultural diplomacy
means. There has been much written about the topic of cultural diplomacy and depending on
the nation, government or personal point of view by the author, it can take on many different
meanings. There are, however, basic principles of cultural diplomacy such as open
communication, sharing and understanding values, promoting a nation or building networks,
all through arts and culture that remain constant throughout much of the literature.
In Cultural Diplomacy: The Linchpin of Public Diplomacy Report, a report by the advisory
committee by the U.S. Department of State, cultural diplomacy is defined as, ‘the exchange
of ideas, information, art, and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in
order to foster mutual understanding.’ (USDS 2005) Nick Cull, a British historian sees
cultural diplomacy as, ‘a subset of actions and programs under the general heading of public
diplomacy’ that attempts ‘to manage the international environment through making its [the
nation’s] cultural resources and achievements known overseas and/or facilitating cultural
transmission abroad.’ (Cull 2007) For the purpose of this dissertation, a definition of cultural
diplomacy has been created by combining principles and definitions from many resources.
For this dissertation, cultural diplomacy will be defined as:
A means of recovering the image of a nation through the exchange of culture,
knowledge and shared interests, with another country, while improving
communications and developing lasting networks in order to build a lasting and
mutually beneficial future.
Cultural diplomacy is often referred to as a ‘soft power’ tool for public diplomacy. This term,
soft power, was coined by Joseph Nye in his book Paradox of American Power. Soft power
‘rests on the ability to set the political agenda in a way that shapes the preferences of
others.’ (Nye 2002) The word “soft” is used, not to imply that cultural diplomacy is weak and

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ineffective, but that it can be used to influence another government or people in many
different situations. When thinking in terms of international politics and relations, instead of
using military or economic means, i.e. “hard powers” to force or pressure another nation to
go along with the policies of one’s own nation, a “soft power” approach ‘co-opts people
rather than coerce them.’ (Nye 2002) Culture and art are used to gain leverage or as a
means to relate to another people. It can also help to promote values and understanding
while bridging the gap between the lines of communication. To gain a better understanding
of this term, it is important to not just define cultural diplomacy but also public diplomacy and
explain the difference between the two.
While cultural diplomacy is considered to be a “soft” form of public diplomacy, there are very
distinct differences between the two. Public diplomacy, according to the US State
Department in 1987, ‘entails government sponsored programs intended to inform or
influence public opinion in other countries: its chief instrument are publications, motion
pictures, cultural exchanges, radio and television’ (Gienow-Hecht et al. 2010) and more
recently by Cull as, ‘public diplomacy is an international actor’s attempt to manage the
international environment through engagement with a foreign public.’(Cull 2009) In Cull’s
report Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the past, he offers an explanation for cultural
diplomacy as, ‘a subset of actions and programs under the general heading of public
diplomacy’ that represents the attempt ‘to manage the international environment through
making its (that nation’s) cultural resources and achievements known overseas and/or
facilitating cultural transmission abroad.’ (Cull 2009) The major difference between the two is
that public diplomacy has more affiliation with the government and is more about pushing
policies or a specific agenda of one nation onto another. Cultural diplomacy on the other
hand works more towards a mutually beneficial relationship, where both sides are
exchanging art and using culture as a resource for finding common ground and
understanding. The goal of cultural diplomacy is to promote a better understanding and
improve a nation’s image where as public diplomacy is used to promote a political agenda.

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Culture has had a very long and interesting relationship with politics. In a report on cultural
diplomacy written by Demos, describes the relationship between culture and politics is
described as, ‘only effective when employed sensitively: it can be used as a forum for set
piece political messaging, and as a safe space for unofficial political relationship-building; it
can keep doors open at difficult times; and it can help to renegotiate relationships for
changing times.’ (Demos 2007) Where war and economic sanctions may have failed, culture
and art can prevail by taking a softer approach and working with another nation rather than
trying to control another nation. Even as early as the late 18th century, diplomats saw the
need for a means of communicating and engaging with audiences in other nations. Hamilton
mentions how:
Long before the ‘old diplomacy’ supposedly have way to the ‘new’, foreign ministries
and diplomats had realized the advantage of appealing to audiences outside the
cabinets and chancelleries of Europe. This too was implicit in what later generations
would call ‘cultural diplomacy’, government backing for the protections and
projections of national culture abroad. (Hamilton et al. 1995)
In the earliest years, when governments were still figuring out how to work and function with
other nations in a peaceful manner, and while it may not have been called cultural
diplomacy, the need for the means to enlighten other nations on the home country’s culture
was evident. During this time it was more about spreading influence and less about sharing
the culture. The French for example worked diligently to spread their education and religious
values abroad, specifically in the near and middle east. The French promoted their
language, literature and culture in order to further their economic and political endeavours.
(Hamilton et al. 1995) The Germans and Italians also worked to promote their language and
culture abroad. The Germans set up funds in 1881 to promote German language in Eastern
Europe. (Hamilton et al. 1995)

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With the wide range of issues going on in the international political front, cultural diplomacy
would appear to be the best way to build relations. As Melissen states:
The accent is increasingly on engaging with foreign audiences rather than selling
messages on mutuality and the establishment of stable relationships instead of mere
policy driven campaigns, on the ‘long-haul’ rather than short term needs, and on
winning ‘hearts and minds’ and building trust. (Melissen 2005)
Every nation takes a different approach and has a diverse historical background when it
comes to cultural diplomacy. In order to provide context for the case studies presented later,
the focus will be in the US and Great Britain. The general principles of cultural diplomacy are
the same, both European as well as American experts have held true to the ideals of
promoting a nation through the exchange of culture, knowledge and shared interests, with
another country, The end result of the exchange being enhanced communication and
developing lasting networks in order to build a lasting and mutually beneficial future.
3.2 Cultural Diplomacy in the US
The US has had a somewhat effective yet controversial relationship with cultural diplomacy.
From the time the US was formed by the founding fathers until present day, the need and
ideals if cultural diplomacy have been questioned and examined. As early as 1785, Thomas
Jefferson had the foresight to know there would be a need to connect with other nations
outside of war and conflict. Before it was formally called cultural diplomacy, he had these
words to say to James Madison:
You see I am an enthusiast on the subject of the arts. But it is an enthusiasm of
which I am not ashamed, as its object is to improve the taste of my countrymen, to
increase their reputation, to reconcile to them the respect of the world and procure
them its praise. (Schneider 2006)

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Jefferson knew that while guns may be effective temporarily, to instil in other nations, a high
and proper reputation of the home nation was important to international relations.
International public opinion is important, especially today with technology, it is important that
the image other nations have of the US is the right one and not just what they can see on
television. Thus, cultural diplomacy, ‘in all its variety provides a critical, maybe even the best,
tool to communicate the intangibles that make America great: individual freedoms; justice
and opportunity for all; diversity and tolerance.’ (Schneider 2003) Surely even the toughest
critics of cultural diplomacy could agree during an era of conflict and war, which the US finds
themselves in now, that a positive image of the US is crucial and the need to use a soft
power may be more effective than using hard power.
In 1938 the US State Department established a Division of Cultural Relations. While the
intentions in the beginning were to work with Latin American nations, the attention soon
turned to working with Germany, Italy, Japan and the Soviet Union. This agency later
became part of the US Information Agency (USIA) in 1978. During the Cold War, the US
Government practiced cultural diplomacy through cultural exchange programs, American
libraries and centres, radio broadcasting, (Voice of America, Radio Free Europe and Radio
Liberty) and student, professional, and citizen exchanges. Even with the creation of
government backed agencies, not all of government officials believed in the power of culture
when it comes to foreign relations and foreign policy. However, there was a small group who
had the foresight to see the potential of American high art and the role it could play in
bridging the gap between other nations. These individuals were part of the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) and for over 20 years, ‘cultural diplomacy’s shadowy second home
was the CIA, which made use of American culture – and American and European cultural
leaders – in its own propaganda struggle against the Soviets.’ (Hurlburt 2008) Regardless of
the CIA’s involvement during this time period, the fact is, they were successful in their
endeavours. One of the goals of cultural diplomacy is to build strong long lasting
relationships with other nations and this was achieved. An example of said success comes

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in the form of a discussion had between an American official and a Polish politician in 2004.
During the discussion, the official asks what motivated Poland to support the US in the Iraq
conflict. Even though the Cold War and the cultural diplomacy initiative have long since
ended, the response given by the Polish politicians speaks strongly to the effects of the
programs taking place then. The Polish politicians responded:
I look around the Polish Cabinet and see that almost every single person spent a
year or more studying or teaching in the United States. I look at the next generations
of Polish leaders and see that almost none of them have the same experience. They
would not make the same decision. (Hurlburt 2008)
If the US is to maintain good relations with other nations, it may be necessary to revisit some
of the cultural diplomacy methods during the Cold War. Based on this Polish politician and
his fellow politicians experiences during that time, they felt such a kinship to the US, they
were willing to support the US war efforts even though the conflict had nothing to do with
Poland. While the CIA involvement may have also been a means to potentially spy on other
nations, it did however have long lasting positive effects that should not be overlooked.
While the CIA was successful, it could appear as if the intent was to use art as propaganda,
which takes away from the ideals of cultural diplomacy. It is important to look past the
negative thoughts and images given to cultural diplomacy based on the CIA’s involvement
and to see the big picture that cultural diplomacy is needed and with a new approach, can
become useful and effective. The key is to strike the right balance of government
involvement.
Cultural diplomacy in the US struggles to not only find legitimacy but also a means of
existing. Brown discusses how art was seen mainly as a tool for foreign policy and not as a
means to build long lasting and mutually beneficial bonds with other nations, especially
during World War II and the Cold War. The two reasons for the lack of foresight on the part
of government officials was:

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First, many in the government and among the public at large continued to view the
promotion of high art abroad as useless, if not suspicious; and, second, even when
arts diplomacy was reluctantly used, it was only a small, if not negligible, part of
America’s overall international efforts. (Brown 2006)
The ideal of cultural diplomacy is for it to be used as a soft non-governmental power instead
a tool to gain control. It is not to be used as a means of trying to get other countries on your
side because one government is worried that another will join with an opposing country.
Cultural diplomacy today in the US still does not have full government support. However,
after the events of September 11th
and the subsequent war taking place in Iraq and
Afghanistan, the need for a soft power approach is becoming more apparent. As Schneider
sees it, ‘In facing these new dangers, a re-examination of old priorities is needed. Cultural
diplomacy, in the widest sense, has increased in importance, whereas traditional diplomacy
and military power . . . are of limited use in coping with most of these dangers.’ (Schneider
2006)
With very few of the cultural diplomacy efforts made during the time of the Cold War era still
in place, one could almost argue that if the centres had been maintained, maybe some of the
future issues that arose could have been prevented. Just because the initial threat is gone,
does not mean there is not another threat looming in the distance. The ideals, values and
culture of an ever changing society cannot be shared and fully understood by another nation
over night. It takes constant nurturing and a continued exchange of information while
working to build and strengthen the relationship.
3.3 Cultural Diplomacy in Great Britain
The British entrance into cultural diplomacy was much smoother that the US with the
formation of the British Council in 1934. While the US has agencies that were closely
affiliated with the government, leaving their programs susceptible to being perceived as
propaganda, Great Britain took an arm’s length approach to cultural diplomacy by receiving

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financial support from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, with no direct input into the
services rendered by the council. The goal of the British Council was to, ‘make British life
and thought more widely known abroad, to encourage the study of the English language,
and to render available abroad current British contributions to literature, science, of the fine
arts.’ (Gienow-Hecht et al. 2010) Before the British Council was created, Great Britain, unlike
other European governments, did not see the need to promote the culture and language. It
was not until 1926, when Sir Reginald (‘Rex’) Leeper joined the News Department at the
Foreign Office and the D’Abnernon Report, a report on trade to South America, was
published, that this mindset began to change. The report discussed the, ‘need for greater
emphasis on cultural relations because of the ‘commercial importance of cultural influence.’
(Fisher 2009) Throughout turbulent times such as the Cold War, the Falkland’s War and the
subsequent Afghanistan and Iran conflict, the British Council has continued to push through
and find opportunities for common ground and building relations with other nations.
Because it can be so easily accepted and embraced, art and culture can easily be used as
tools for propaganda. The British Council took a less controversial route with cultural
diplomacy efforts than the US and still worked to promote Great Britain and especially the
English language to other nations. The British Council has been able to use this soft power
to promote British culture and British foreign policy without direct government influence.
Great Britain recognizes the need for the council and the need to promote a positive image
outside of what happens in the political arena. In a report on cultural diplomacy, Demos
remarked ‘in a world where popular culture can generate instant discord, there is an ever
greater need for the formal cultural sector to continue its role of mediation and explanation:
cultural chasms are best dealt with by building cultural bridges.’ (Demos 2007) While
television and the Internet can reach many people quickly, it may only show one side of a
nation. To gain a true understanding and value for a culture it is best to present multiple
sides which include high art and culture as well popular culture.

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While the more affluent can easily access high culture, it is those who are lower on the totem
pole that need to be reached as they tend to be in the majority and may only have access to
what can be seen on satellite television or on the Internet. British cultural institutions and
those working in the sector, realize if,
Britain were left to commercial channels: profitable audiences would see the usual
mix of heritage drama and royal scandal while the unprofitable corners of the world
would be utterly abandoned and prey to the loudest local opinion on exactly what
British values might be. (Cull 2011)
Understanding the value and properly utilizing cultural diplomacy has helped not only to
promote a positive image of high art in Great Britain, but also goes beyond what is seen in
the main stream arena.
Great Britain is in a unique position today. With the 2012 Olympic Games just around the
corner, there is a rare opportunity to make cultural diplomacy a major focus. The Olympics
are a great opportunity to showcase British culture on an even larger scale than they
normally would have the occasion to. Those who are not physically attending the games can
watch the events on television. In order to do this, Demos suggested:
Cultural institutions and the DCMS should be represented on a newly formed cultural
diplomacy working group run by the Public Diplomacy Group (the Secretariat of the
Public Diplomacy Board), which would provide a formal mechanism for cultural
institutions to engage with the FCO and feed into emerging thinking and policy on
public diplomacy, but without skewing the focus of the whole public diplomacy
strategy. (Demos 2007)
With this group feeding into the FCO, how will it strike a balance, that is, remain impartial to
policies of the FCO yet still work to promote cultural diplomacy? With the group being made
up of cultural institutions and DCMS, it is hoped that official government involvement will be
kept to a minimum in order to keep it from feeling like a tool for policy propaganda. A positive

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note to make is that while the government will be involved, at least it will be public
knowledge. Where as in the US, when the CIA secretly funded and participated in cultural
diplomacy efforts, thus leaving a tainted mark on US cultural diplomacy from the 1940’s to
the1960’s, this collaboration would be open to the public and possibly less susceptible to
scepticism.
3.4 Moving Forward with Cultural Diplomacy and Museums
The overall goal of cultural diplomacy is to promote and share the culture of one’s nation
with another nation. Similar to marketing a product, the goal is to effectively market the
nation and to do so, it is necessary to have a target audience. (Anholt 2008) For museums,
most already have a well established and respected brand. Most museums are even so well
known they can simply go by an acronym or abbreviation of their name. For example, most
people refer to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City as MOMA or the Prado
museums in Madrid, Spain, whose formal name is Museo Nacional del Prado. These
museums are so well known and have such world-renowned reputations, museum
enthusiasts are well aware of the museums simply by the nickname. Brand image along with
the reputation of a museum is very important and can be used to legitimize any statements
or stances taken when it comes to cultural diplomacy.
Anholt brings up the idea of a competitive identity, which describes, ‘a plan for mobilising the
strategies, activities, investments, innovations and communications of as many national
sectors as possible, both public and private.’ (Anholt 2008) This includes one of the 6 basic
areas of activity, one of which is cultural exchange and cultural export. With that in mind, the
opportunity exists for museums to fall into a good position of helping to foster cultural
exchange and diplomacy through hosting exhibitions or through producing or sponsoring
exhibitions in other nations in order to promote their nations and work to improve their
image, should it need improving.

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Museums have their own reputation aside from that of their nation's identity. Through
decades of hard work, museums have become institutions where visitors can become
educated by the art of a foreign nation and that of their own nation. Museums were started
on the premise of bettering society and continue to do so today, making museums a great
resource for cultural diplomacy efforts. With cultural diplomacy definition and ideas set forth,
the connection to museums can be explained in further detail. Later in this dissertation, an
example in the form of a case study on Ai Weiwei will be used as a even further explanation
into how in the current climate, museums can be important players in cultural diplomacy.

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4. Museums
4.1 What Does “Museum” Mean?
To begin, it would be best to set a firm definition of what it means to be considered a
museum. The definition of a museum can be a combination of ideas on education,
preservation, art and culture. Museums are seen as a venue of learning and enlightenment
where patrons are allowed to think freely, observe and contemplate artwork, and historical
and scientific artefacts. By doing this, it is hoped that those who enter the museum will learn
and grow into well-rounded members of society. The museum does this though encouraging
free thought and opinions and by educating the viewer on the world around them and
beyond. In The Emergence of the Modern Museum, Siegel defines a museum as, ‘a
collection of repository of rare and curious things in nature and art, arranged for the
purposes of study.’ (Siegel 2008) The International Council of Museums (ICOM) approaches
the act of defining a museum from many different angles. ICOM approached defining a
museum from a conceptual, theoretical, practical and functional, activity related perspective.
With this many points of view and the many different types of museums, it can be difficult to
develop a basic yet clear and concise definition for a museum (ICOM 2010). For the purpose
of this dissertation, we will be defining a museum with a combination of ideas presented by
ICOM as well as other resources as: an institution in which the preservation, research and
exhibition of objects are used as tools to serve society and aid in its enrichment and
development. This definition takes into consideration the activities that take place in a
museum while approaching the function of museums from a conceptual perspective. This
viewpoint will be used to support the main argument laid out as to the place of the museum
in society and in cultural diplomacy.
4.2 Brief Background and History of Museums
For historical content see the appendices section 7.1.

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4.3 Museums and Cultural Diplomacy
For centuries, major art museums have been involved in politics and international relations.
Museums have used their soft powers and status in society to place themselves in a position
that gives them the power to have an opinion that holds weight. The balance between
politics and art has always been a delicate one. There are no rules or policies set in place
but clearly there is an opportunity for museums to use their influence and be involved in this
soft power. Cultural diplomacy cannot change government policies but what it can do is work
towards creating a better understanding and towards building relations between nations.
Museums cannot change the policies of another country’s government. But, they can keep
communications open in others way by creating a dialogue between the nations through art
exhibitions, educational events, international strategies, and hosting international artists from
opposing nations. Thereby, utilizing the arts to promote a better understanding of each
nation and their values.
Those who are involved with the internal workings of the museum are quite familiar with the
power of cultural diplomacy. One such example of museums taking an active role in cultural
diplomacy is the World Collections Programme. This programme, chaired by Neil
MacGregor, director of the British Museums and the UK’s first appointed cultural
ambassador, aims to, ‘establish two-way partnerships with institutions in Asia and Africa,
and increase their access to British collections and expertise.’(www.britishmuseum.org) The
British Museum, along with five other major art museums in London will work through their
museums to build new relationships and public programmes as well to foster the exchange
of culture. In an article for The Sunday Times in 2007, MacGregor is quoted as saying,
“Museums can reach very large numbers and the contacts go on despite political ups and
downs.” (Woolf 2007) One of the key objectives of cultural diplomacy is to build
relationships. The point of doing this is so that when there are turbulent times, nations can
have a positive starting point in order to try and rectify the situations. One could even argue
the point that if countries are enjoying a mutually beneficial exchange of culture and are

20
gaining better understanding of national values, there may not be disagreements. Utilizing
the power and influence of the museum and taking advantage of the international
connections that can be made will not only help with the nations image but will also set up
future generations with strong international relationships, similar to that of the US and
Poland, which was mentioned in the previous chapter.
While it is not surprising that museums of today are involved in politics, there are also
examples, while not as publically known, of museums being involved in cultural diplomacy
and politics, specifically MOMA during World War II and the Cold War. Sylvester described it
best by saying the museum is, ‘an intricate, multivalent, internationally implicated, socially
situated social institution, growing in popularity.’ (Sylvester 2009) This is best illustrated by
MOMA and their interactions with art and politics during World War II and the Cold War.
During World War II and the Cold War Nelson Rockefeller, president of MOMA in New York
City in 1939, was involved in US Government war efforts that sometimes mixed in with
programs and the general image of MOMA. Whilst there were some in the US government
who did not believe cultural diplomacy would be effective and did not see high art as
representative of the nation, there were other influential people like Rockefeller who did,
although his efforts in cultural diplomacy could be perceived as for personal gain. (Brown
2006)
During the 1930’s, the US Government established a Division of Cultural Relations with
intentions of trying to become “good neighbours” to the Latin American nations. Rockefeller,
whose family had oil holdings (Creole Petroleum Company) in Venezuela, was appointed by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt to be the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA).
Amongst many other governmental appointments such as Assistant Secretary of State for
Latin America and in 1952 special assistant to President Dwight Eisenhower, Rockefeller
either held a seat on the board or was president of MOMA. (Sylvester 2009) While it may not
be clear what Rockefeller’s underlying intention may have been when he accepted these
political positions, his interactions were seen as suspicious. Critics and art historians felt

21
MOMA’s image was, ‘sullied and compromised by political involvement in the American war
effort’ and ‘accused Rockefeller of clandestinely turning the museum into a tool of capitalist
American propaganda.’ (Sylvester 2009) It is understandable why critics would feel this way.
While Rockefeller was doing what many well connected and wealthy persons do, what
raised the eyebrows of critics is how his personal business affairs affected MOMA. During
this time, MOMA along with the CIAA, organized a contemporary art exhibition in Latin
America, started art programs overseas with funding coming from a Rockefeller Brother
Fund grant as well as accepting government contracts totalling approximately $1.5 million.
While there is no direct connection to MOMA and the CIA, MOMA did work with the USIA on
several occasions around the same time the CIA was secretly working with the USIA. On a
less controversial note, MOMA, with sponsoring from the USIA produced a photography
exhibition in 1955 titled “The Family Man”. Rockefeller and is family name had no affiliation
with this exhibition as he withdrew his family funding dollars in an efforts to make MOMA in
its own right an international museum. The exhibition, taking place post World War II,
contained 503 themed photos focusing on the common values and human expressions that
people around the world share such as love, family, and trust. No famous photographers
were used making it such that those who came to the exhibition came because they were
interested in seeing everyday Americans. “The Family Man” was exhibited internationally in
over 37 countries for 10 years with support from the museum’s international programs, which
started in 1952. (www.MOMA.org; Sylvester 2009)
4.4 Moving Forward
Museums are filled with interesting artefacts and were created to help make society better.
Through the years, museums have adapted to the world around them and with this
adaptation come changes in how museums interact with society. Throughout this
dissertation, cultural diplomacy and museums have been analysed as well as the connection

22
between the two. This final section, Chapter 5, provides further analysis into the relationship
between cultural diplomacy and museums.

23
5. Ai Weiwei: A Case Study
5.1 Who is Ai Weiwei?
For a brief biography on Ai Weiwei see appendices section 7.2.
5.2 Ai Weiwei and the Chinese Political System
Troubles began for Ai in 2008 when he along with other Chinese artists and activists spoke
out about the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in which 5000 children were killed when their poorly
constructed schools collapsed. Since then, Ai has faced much verbal and physical
opposition from the Chinese government. His blog has been shut down and his studios have
been raided (north Beijing) or demolished (Shanghai). Authorities have also questioned and
followed him, his family and associates. (CBC.CA) While Ai still continues to use Twitter,
although his posts are sometimes deleted and his blog, which runs off of a server in the US,
are still up, it is only a matter of time before they are censored as well. These attempts by
the Chinese government to silence Ai came to a head in April 2011 when he was detained
while attempting to board a plane to Hong Kong. Ai as well as his wife and associates were
held with no word given as to where they were or what they were being charged with.
Speculation as to the reasons behind secret detention ranged from government fears of Ai
helping to promote a “Jasmine Revolution” to a charge of obscenity as a result of his art
work. (Sheridan 2011; Richburg 2011) Regardless of the reason, one thing was clear,
Chinese officials were attempting to silence the outspoken artist.
While Ai may not have been able to speak out and was hidden from the public view, the art
world spoke for him, demanding to know his whereabouts, why he was being detained and
for the authorities to release him, his wife and associates. Chinese human rights activist
suspect the government’s way of regaining control of the people and to stop any kind of
revolution is to take severe action against people while the rest of the world is preoccupied
with the uprisings that took place in the Middle East and in North Africa. It is classic
behaviour by the authorities to, ‘redraw the lines of permissible expression in China, to

24
restrict the most outspoken advocates of global values.’ (Richburg 2011) However, there are
always two sides to the story. Chinese officials have defended their actions. In a New York
Times article, Wong reports that Ai is being detained under suspicion of “economic crimes”
under the “rule of law” in China. Although it should be noted that Wong points out that it is
not uncommon for the Chinese government to charge citizens with financial fraud and
convict them in order to silence them. (Wong 2011) To further understand the perspective of
Chinese officials, it may be helpful to understand what is meant by “rule of law” and examine
China’s soft power system.
The legal system in China is complicated and while the goal of “rule of law” is to create a
‘harmonious socialist society’, they are far from achieving this. Essentially, the idea behind
the “rule of law” is, ‘a system under which law acts as a curb on state and private power.
Rules are set in advance and applied consistently, equally, and transparently by
independent courts that serve as a backstop to protect civil, political, and human rights.’
(Horsley 2007) Striving for a transparent and equal society is hard to achieve when the ruling
party system has communist ideals. Horsley discusses how post Cultural Revolution era,
China’s government has been trying to achieve, ‘uniformity and dignity of the socialist legal
system,” set forth the aspirational principle that no individual or organization (including
political parties) is above the Constitution or the law, and spelled out certain fundamental
rights and duties of Chinese citizens.’ (Horsley 2007) A major source of failure falls on the
government’s lack of ability to relinquish control. While intellectuals, activist and artists are
still being detained and the government is more concerned with “maintaining social stability”
then actually trying to not be above the law, the “rule of law” will not be reformed nor will the
negative imagery sometimes associated with China.
The idea and term public diplomacy is a relatively new term in China. While other major
nations have been practicing the art of using soft power for centuries, this idea has only
come to light since the Cold War. One of the principles of cultural diplomacy is the idea of
promoting the nation. In order to do this, it is necessary to have a target audience. Before

25
China can effectively target anyone, they must first work on their image. D’Hooghe
discusses how China does not have the best image and that China blames this on the
Western media, whom they feel have portrayed them in a negative light, by focusing only on
the negative events. (D’Hooghe 2007) Whether this is true or not is up for debate, but
ultimately having a positive image is important to being able to use soft powers effectively.
To work towards this endeavour, China in the 1940’s began to invite journalist to visit select
parts of China and encouraged them to report on the progress taking place. The goal and
end result was to show China as a, ‘peace-loving country, a victim of foreign aggression, a
socialist country (stressed in the Maoist era), an anti-hegemonic force, a developing country
and- especially 1978 onwards, a co-operator.’ (D’Hooghe 2007)
China may have political and governmental issues to work out but they are making strides in
the cultural diplomacy department. In April 2010, China opened the National Museum of
China, located in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square. For the museum’s first exhibition, China
collaborated with Germany for “The Art of Enlightenment”. Lu Zhangshen, the museums
director feels the exhibition is, “profoundly significant for China in furthering its understanding
of the international world as well as recognising and embracing its own cultural values.”
(Szántó 2010) The exhibition has not only brought German finances into a Chinese
museums, it has opened the doors for the two countries to exchange cultural values and to
promote an understanding of nation states. As Chen Ping put it, ‘Cultural exchange is also
thinking exchange.” Ping, the culture ministry official, has worked along with his staff to gain
an understanding of German culture and to promote Chinese culture in Germany. This
exchange has been taking place since 2001 and includes festivals, Chinese diplomats
working on cultural programmes in embassies and the establishing of cultural institutes
abroad. (Szántó 2010)
While it is encouraging to see effort being made by museums in China to foster relationships
with other nations, there is still the underlying big issue of the political and human rights
issues. The museum is a great place to start the steps of fostering ideas and encouraging

26
thought in the Chinese people, but if the Chinese government will only continue to oppress
this free thinking, it can be perceived as pointless and this will discourage other cultural
institutions from wanting to work with China. However, this could be the starting point to
breaking down and breaking through the political constraints, with the help of museums. If
the National Museum of Beijing can encourage enough people to have their own
independent thoughts, they may be able to begin to desire a new order.
5.3 Ai Weiwei, Museums and Cultural Diplomacy
Ai Weiwei was detained in early April 2011 and released from secret detention in late June
2011. He was charged with tax and fine evasion to the tune of £1.2million and cannot leave
Beijing for 1 year. During the 80 days Ai was detained, a great outcry rose up in the
international art world. While artist like Anish Kapoor showed his displeasure by planning to
boycott the UK Now exhibition taking place next year in Beijing, the Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum and Foundation started an online petition for the release of Ai. A
protest, 1001 chairs for Ai, named after an instillation by Ai titled ‘Fairytale: 1001 Qing
Dynasty Wooden Chairs’ was organized. This international protest took place on April 17th
at
1pm. As a display of solidarity, participants were asked to bring chairs to a sit in in from front
of Chinese embassies and consults around the world. (Cash 2011) Many prominent
museum officials and cultural institutions spoke out or offered some type of reaction to the
detention of Ai. While its commendable for directors of reputable museums to sign an online
petition for Ai’s release, should museums do more or are they using a good balance as far
as being involved in the political issue while not stepping into official foreign policy territory?
When it comes to whether or not a museum should participate in a political situation, it
ultimately comes down to the museum and their policies. To speak could jeopardize future
collaborations but to not speak out could alienate them amongst fellow museums
colleagues. A prime example of such a dilemma is the Milwaukee Art Museum (MAM). MAM

27
will be hosting an exhibition of 18th
century art and decorative objects titled “The Emperor’s
Private Paradise”. This prestigious exhibition is a big deal for MAM and is the corner stone
for their summer events and exhibition series “Summer of China”. As of now, MAM has not
signed the online petition nor have they spoken out against China. Dan Keegan, director of
MAM had this to say, “The political situation is extremely complex and the museum is
sensitive to the discussion that Ai Weiwei’s detention has created and we are obviously
concerned for his well being.” Keegan went on to further say “to that point, I think that our
‘Summer of China’ can play a role in expanding understanding and forwarding the dialogue
between cultures.” (Schumacher 2011) With such a high profile exhibition coming to the
museum, it is understandable that MAM would choose to remain neutral. To speak out could
alienate the relationship they have built with China. On the other hand, to not speak out
could make them appear to be supportive of those who violate human rights or to only be
concerned for their museums well being. James Purnell, Cultural Secretary for Britain
believes, ‘Culture and art may foster ties where cultural diplomacy cannot.’ (Woolf 2007)
Both Purnell and Keegan agree that culture and art should be used as a means of
diplomacy. It is a very delicate balance of what is right for each institution and how far a
cultural institution should go. For MAM, to risk relations they have been building with China
for years to speak out for Ai is not feasible for them. Keegan makes a good point in regards
to using the exhibition as a means of dialogue between nations. Now may not be a good
time, but if the relationship continues to strengthen, certainly down the road the topic can
and should be discussed. Building strong relations now in order to have lasting connections
later is part of what cultural diplomacy is all about. Similar to how the political officials in
Poland decided to work with the US to invade Iraq, based on these officials having a bond
with the US (as previously mentioned in Chapter 3), MAM can build this relationship in hopes
of keeping dialogue open for years to come.

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For all the museums who like MAM, chose to remain silent, there were many who did not.
The online petition on Change.org was started by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and
Foundation. In a statement on the Guggenheim Museum’s website, they wrote,
We members of the international arts community express our concern for Ai’s
freedom and disappointment in China’s reluctance to live up to its promise to nurture
creativity and independent thought, the keys to “soft power” and cultural influence.
(Guggenheim.org)
This petition, which has been signed by directors of many international museums, speaks in
a firm yet thoughtful tone. By no means are the museums shunning China, but they are
expressing their disappointment and encouraging China to rethink their actions. Part of
cultural diplomacy is using soft power to persuade and not control the situation. The
museums are using a soft tough to let China know how they feel and what resolution they
would like to have happen.
Museums in Great Britain have also been quite vocal about the detention of Ai. The directors
of Tate, Tate Modern and the director of the Serpentine Gallery all signed the online petition.
Tate Modern went a step further and placed a “Release Ai Weiwei” banner on their building.
The Museums Association, a membership based organization for those working in
museums, galleries and heritage institutions, based in England, conducted a survey on their
website. An overwhelming 92% of those who participated felt that the abuse of human rights
should be a concern of museums. (museumassociation.org) With this in mind, some have
called into question whether or not British museums should proceed with the “UK Now”
exhibition next year. A spokesperson for the British Council had this to say,
“We believe that all artists and cultural institutions should have the freedom to
explore and represent their societies through art. The arts provide powerful ways of
establishing open dialogue between people and cultures, and this is essential to
building understanding and trust. We do not support cultural boycotts – dialogue is

29
better than isolation. It is a priority of the British Council to give audiences across
China opportunities to experience the art, ideas and creative freedom of the UK. It is
the British Council’s role to forge links between our countries through the arts. UK
Now will contribute to this.” (Steel 2011)
It is commendable for the British Council to take this stance however it could be seen as an
endorsement of Chinese policies. This is where the lines become quite blurry. On one hand,
museums should not take away from the people of China who will welcome an opportunity to
learn and engage with British culture. On the other hand, to condone blatant acts of human
rights violations, not just against Ai, but all of the other not so well known artists and
activists, does not look good for the image of the museums or the British Council.
Ultimately, each individual museum will need to decide how they react in such situations. It is
clear, museums play a role in cultural diplomacy but it is a very elusive balance as far as
how much of a role should be played. In Balancing Act: Ethics, Missions and the Public
Trust, Carr profiles museums stating, ‘To serve in a museum is to serve an ethos of
responsible action toward both its collected objects and gathered human beings.’ (Carr
2001) Museums were created to help improve society and to improve the way people
thought and acted. Museums have a degree of responsibility to uphold standards of trust,
integrity and credibility while promoting art and culture to the masses. With great power
comes great responsibility, a responsibility museums cannot enter into lightly. It is not
possible to offer a one-size-fits-all solution but what can be done is to keep dialogue and
cultural exchange going in order to continue to strengthen relations with other nations.
6. Conclusion and Findings
6.1 Cultural Diplomacy
From this dissertation, a clear picture of what cultural diplomacy is and what is can do when
implemented properly or improperly has been achieved. There are many government

30
reports and articles written by experts on the matter, but the same principles and values are
always constant. Cultural diplomacy promotes open communication, sharing and
understanding of values, helps to promote a positive national image and builds mutually
beneficial networks and relationships. Now more than ever, with so much political turmoil
happening in the international arena, it is important to try and find common ground and a
means of connecting with other nations that does not involve a heavy political hand, force or
weapons.
Cultural diplomacy can help promote national values and culture while showing other nations
that some values are universal. Through these universal values, common ground can be
discovered. Both sides, however, must be willing to keep an open mind. And it is important
that government policy and agenda does not pollute the process. Through the examples
given in this dissertation from the early years of the creation of the first museums in the US
to Britain hosting the Olympic Games in 2012, cultural diplomacy has played a significant
role in the image of nations.
The US has not always had the best track record when it comes to cultural diplomacy. There
has constantly been a split in governmental support of cultural diplomacy initiatives. Because
of this split, some government officials have tried to use cultural diplomacy secretly. A prime
example is the CIA’s successful implementation of many cultural initiatives while secretly
working in the USIA post World War II. The CIA may have had an underlying agenda of
spying on other countries during the Cold War, but the programs that were a part of the
USIA, had a positive affect that lasted up until recent years. Cultural diplomacy could be
used to rebuild allies for the US as well. As the Polish politician put it, the older generation
feels a connection to the US because they were able to come to the US and study, teach
and experience US culture first hand. The Linchpin Report stresses the importance of
cultural diplomacy regardless of an imminent threat. It could be argued that if relations with
other nations are strong and there is an open dialogue between nations, tensions between
nations will not reach the point of physical interactions involving weapons.

31
It is recommended that the US work towards building relations with the Middle Eastern
nations as well as with Asian nations. Research has shown that nations in these areas have
the most strained relations with the US. Much of what many perceive of the US is based on
what is seen on television or on the Internet. By no means should pop culture be the leading
representation of values and culture in the US. This is where cultural institutions such as
museums can leverage travelling international exhibitions to further the cause of promoting a
positive image of the US.
Great Britain currently finds itself in a unique position of hosting the Olympics in 2012. This
affords Great Britain the prime opportunity to control how the nation is promoted. The world
will literally be Great Britain’s stage next year. Unlike the US, Great Britain is able to work to
promote their culture through the British Council. This council receives funding for the
government, however they are not run by the government. Thus, making any initiatives
produced by the council less open to suspicion of an underlying government agenda. The
British Council has been promoting British culture for over 75 years. It did not wait until there
was a strain in relations with another nation; the council has been active in promoting the
English language and British art and culture around the world.
The difference between the approach taken by the US and the approach taken by Great
Britain comes down to the way art, specifically high art, is viewed. In the US, when it comes
to selecting something from US culture that would represent the nation, unfortunately art is
not the most popular choice. This is evident in the way art and cultural institutions are funded
mostly through private means with little government support. Great Britain’s government, on
the other hand, highly values and supports the arts. Regardless of the differences, one thing
is clear, cultural diplomacy is a necessity and should be and continue to be actively pursued.
6.2 Museums, Society and Cultural Diplomacy

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Museums were created to help make society better. Originally the goal was for the lower
class to come to the museums, observe the upper class and hopefully adopt their decorum.
What did happen once museums were truly made accessible to everyone was that those
who came learned and grew to appreciate art and other cultural or historical artefacts. The
premise of the museums makes it a great match to play a role in cultural diplomacy.
With the current political climate, this would be a good time for museums to step up
international strategies and host even more international scholars and exhibitions to promote
cultural exchange with other nations. While this is a challenge, due to issues such as funding
and Visas, it is worth the effort if it means engaging with an estranged nation and working
towards building relations. China, along with Middle Eastern countries, specifically Iraq and
Afghanistan, needs to be on the list of top nations for both the US and Great Britain.
Currently China does not have the best image. And while they want to blame this perception
on Western media, the fact remains that the government has been accused of human rights
violations. No government is perfect. But, when the Chinese government detained Ai
Weiwei, this did not help their image. Museums in China, specifically the National Museum in
Beijing, have worked to build bridges with other nations. There have also been many
exhibitions of Chinese art and cultural objects on international travelling exhibitions that will
work to show citizens in other nations that there is more to China than the issues they have
with human rights, despite the fact that what is being shown is mostly historical artefacts. If
China is serious about promoting their current cultural identity, it may be a good idea to
arrange an international exhibition of contemporary art. The government, however, may find
this challenging if the art, like much of Ai’s is political and speaks out about what the artists
feel is wrong with the government. This, however, is where museums and cultural diplomacy
can intervene. Along with hosting the exhibition, educational events should be held as well.
This would provide China the opportunity to explain their system to others and possibly
resolve misconceptions.

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In conclusion, cultural diplomacy can be a powerful tool in promoting understanding and
dialogue between nations. By no means is it the ultimate answer to solve major political
conflicts. However, it can help initiate the resolution process. It can also be argued that if a
nation has an understanding of the culture and values of another nation, this may alleviate
conflict due to their established strong relationship. Museums can play a role in cultural
diplomacy by leveraging their power, influence and international reputations. Museums can
be the facilitators in promoting cultural diplomacy though exhibitions, education and
generally promoting an open and free environment in which anyone can come and enjoy art
and culture.

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7. Appendices
7.1 Brief Background and History of Museums
The concept and ideals of the museum have changed and adapted to society over centuries
from early Greek and Roman times, from temples filled with offerings to the gods, to the
modern day museums, such as visited freely by the public. In its earliest form, museums
were located in the treasury of a monastery, cathedral or church and contained precious and
religious objects (Bazin 1967).
During the 16th century, most collections were still private and were not held in museums
but in a gallery or cabinet. The long, grand halls of the galleries usually exhibited pictures
and sculptures. Cabinets on the other hand were more scientific exhibition spaces, square
shaped and filled with, ‘stuffed animals, botanicals rarities, small works of art such as
medallions or statuettes, artefacts, and curios.’ (Alexander, et al. 2008) These private
collections were held by the most distinguished members of society and were only viewed by
those associated with the owner and those who were themselves holding a high place in
society.
During the 17th century the first public museum opened in Basel in 1671. The next public
museum, the Ashmolean Museum, opened years later in Oxford, England. While the initial
intent of the museum may have been to preserve artistic and scientific creations, the idea of
shaping and reforming society was also an underlying mission of the museum. The idea was
to standardize and normalize the working class by exposing them to the upper echelon of
society. Bennett shares how:
The conception of the museum as an institution in which the working classes- provided they
dressed nicely and curbed any tendency toward unseemly conduct – might be exposed to
the improving influence of the middle classes was crucial to its construction as a new kind of
social space. (Bennett 1995)
As museums continued to be developed, the goal of reshaping society became more of the
focus; bring in the working class and have them follow strict rules by observing the middle
class of society. The initial thoughts were that museums could be institutions used to

35
improve man’s inner life, thus, improve society. As Greenwood put it ‘a Museum and Free
library are as necessary for the mental and moral health of the citizens as good sanitary
arrangements, water supply and street lighting are for their physical comfort.’ (Greenwood
1888: 389) The thought of the museum being necessary and the act of moving away from
social exclusion is a positive move for society. However, using the museum to modify the
actions and behaviour of lower class citizens in society and the working class so that they
could learn to imitate the middle class by visiting museums is not a guaranteed means of
improving society as a whole. It is as if the working class is looked upon as untrained
children and that the museum is used as their training ground so they will become fit to be in
proper society. Museums were to be used to fix the majority of society and with the code of
conduct in place; they could work towards doing so. The flaw in this idea was that in the
beginning, while the museums were open to the public, the hours were limited and a request
for a ticket had to be made well in advance. If the goal was to improve society, how would
working class citizens be able to attend during the limited hours? Beyond reforming society,
the idea of gaining knowledge and enlightenment were also hoped to be gained by visiting a
museum. The museums started out with a members-only scheme in Europe that eventually
led to eventually offering select viewing to the general public.
While European museums were public but restricted, museums in the US offered public
viewing times straight away. The first museum in the US, the Charleston Museum, in
Charleston, South Carolina opened in 1773 and started out with a membership scheme but
allowed the general public to view the collection of natural history artefacts. (Alexander, et al.
2008) In Washington D.C. the Smithsonian Institute started many years later in 1846 by a
British scientist, James Smithson for the ‘increase and diffusion of knowledge.’(www.si.edu)
and later in1873 became a national museum. The US by the end of the 19th century had
officially entered the museum industry with the opening of the American Museum of Natural
History in New York, New York (1869), the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (1870)
and the Museum of Fine Art in Boston, Massachusetts (1876). While the museums in the US

36
pride themselves on democratic ideals like their European counterparts, the underlying
theme was to educate and enlighten the people for the betterment of society.
7.2 Who is Ai Weiwei?
Described by the New York Times (NYT) as being “a figure of Warholian celebrity” in Beijing,
Ai Weiwei is the most famous living Chinese artist. His popularity grew when he collaborated
with architects Herzogt de Meuron on the Beijing Olympic Stadium, nicknamed The Birds
Nest and spread even more in 2008 after saying he was not interested in Chinese State
propaganda or in the Olympics themselves. (Cooke 2008)
Things have not always been easy for Ai. His father, famous Chinese poet Ai Qing along
with other intellectuals was exiled during the cultural revolution of the 1960’s. It was a very
trying time for Ai and his family. When he was 10 years old, he and his family were sent to
the remote desert region Xinjiang. While they were in exile, Ai’s father was forced to clean
public restrooms and was subject of intense abuse from the local villagers. The family had
no proper home and was forced to live in a cave-like structure, dug into the ground that had
no roof. His father was not even involved in politics; he was simply punished for being an
intellectual, which was not looked fondly upon by the Chinese government during that time.
The shame Ai and his family were subject to for a crime they did not commit would only
make the artists stronger and fuel his creativity. It was not until 1978 that Ai’s father was
exonerated along with millions of other exiled Chinese intellectuals by the government, who
simply said it was a “mistake”. (Cooke 2008)
Ai, at the age of 24, took the leap and moved to America in 1981 after studying at the Beijing
Film Academy with famous Chinese film director Zhang Yimou. It was during this time that Ai
was formally introduced to contemporary art and his desire to be an artist grew. He struggled
in his early years but finally broke through in 2004 with his 1st exhibition in Switzerland.
(Cooke 2008)

37
It was not until Ai’s father became gravely ill that he returned to Beijing. The year was 1993
and while physically Beijing had changed, the oppression and lack of freedom still remained.
Ai has since stayed in China and set up his studio in north Beijing called Beijing’s East
Village as well as FAKE, his architecture practice and is the co-founder of the Modern
Chinese Art Foundation. (Cooke 2008)
In the last few years, Ai has been very vocal about his opposition to human rights violations
in China and the Chinese government. Not one to hide behind his art, Ai feels his
government is, “unimaginative, prevaricating, suspicious of its own people and utterly
focused on self-preservation” and “They don’t believe in liberty. They don’t believe in China
before the Communists. There is only one simple, clear task: to protect their control, to
maintain their governing. Which is such a pity.” (Wines 2009) During an interview conducted
from Ai’s studio in 2009, he appealed to President Obama and other western leaders to help
China gain more freedom.
Along with distancing himself from the Olympic stadium he helped create because he felt it
sent the wrong message, Ai has also been very vocal regarding the death of over 5000
school children during the Sichuan earthquake in May 2008. Ai helped put together a
citizen’s inquiry into the collapse of 20 schools that simply crumbled to pieces during the
earthquake as well as the government’s refusal to give the public information on the matter.
(Wines 2009) From this tragedy came the creation of Ai’s instillation “So Sorry”. Ai almost
missed its opening in Munich after he was rushed to the hospital to have blood drained from
his brain, this as a result of a swift blow to the head by police in China who stormed his
apartment a month earlier. This act of aggression was due to Ai’s agreeing to testify on
behalf of Sichuan writer and activist Tan Zuoren. Both he and Ai were investigating the
deaths of the school children in the earthquake. Instead of trying to provide an explanation,
the Chinese government worked to silence those who questioned the tragedy. Even with the
action taken against him, Ai remained steadfast, his thoughts were, “I have taken this
position because, I have to say, I am not scared. I have considered what I have to lose. My

38
close friends say, ‘Weiwei, you are stupid. Some day they will get you.’ But I am not naive. I
grew up in this system and my father was a victim of this system and this history. If we do
not access our rights it only makes their power stronger.” (Weiwei 2008) Ai is willing to stand
up for what he believes in, even if it means standing alone. Through his art work, blogs and
other social media outlets, Ai continues to fight for his as well as other Chinese citizen’s
rights.
It is quite befitting that an art exhibition which speaks out against a government in a strong
way is held in Haus der Kunst. The Haus der Kunst was built in the 1930’s to house German
art. This space housed the “Great German Art Exhibition” (English translation), which
glorified the “blood and earth” ideology of the Nazis. Fast forward to 2009, Haus der Kunst
hosts international exhibitions and houses a variety of artworks in its space.
(www.hausderkunst.de) This exhibition by Ai, his largest retrospective to date, featured 9000
children’s backpacks installed on the exterior wall of this Munich gallery. The backpacks
were used to spell out, in Chinese characters, “She lived happily for seven years in this
world”. This message was a quote given by a mother who lost her child in the May 2008
earthquake. There is power behind such a simplistic statement. It speaks and appeals to the
Chinese government as well as the human spirit. For Ai, “So Sorry” is, ‘a show that revives
the mistakes too grand to be excused, thus mocking the idea of an apology and calling for
actual change.’ (artobserved.com) Ai’s artwork consistently carries a message that is similar
to this, a question to authority in hopes of an answer. While he fights to get the Chinese
government to allow its citizens the freedom and human rights they deserve, he uses non
violent means and art to express his message to the world.
Similar to the early years of modern and contemporary art, when these new art forms were
looked at with fear and misunderstanding, the Chinese government looks as Ai’s avant-
garde work in a similar manner. From his smashing Ming Dynasty vase photos to this
Sunflower Seeds instillation, Ai’s work challenges power and provokes thought by bringing
the past to the forefront and challenging authority. As Ai puts it, “Art and culture here are

39
disassociated with public debate. This applies to the political landscape too.” (Weiwei 2008)
There is an underlying fear of what will happen if anyone speaks up or challenges the norm.
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is on a quest to maintain total control, which is not
possible. The CCP may be able to take down blogs or websites (Ai’s blog has been taken
down several times) or to censor Facebook or YouTube, but once contemporary art leaves
China, the CCP has no further control. Ai remarked that, ‘any power or structure that seeks
to maintain full control and is not open in any way to loosening its power eventually makes
itself ridiculous. With regard to contemporary art and the Party this creates the impossible
situation that you describe: it’s like oil and water – it can never mix.” (Weiwei 2008)
Eventually one side will need to relent and for Ai, giving in is not an option.
Despite everything, Ai remains optimistic. When asked if Chinese contemporary art could
impact Chinese society he replied, “Somehow it still does, willingly or unwillingly, consciously
or unconsciously. It is so far from the mainstream but it can reach people very slowly:
through young people and perhaps through fashion. We must challenge our human
intelligence. We have to be positive.” (Weiwei2008) Ai’s human spirit remains unbroken
despite the many trials and tribulations he has faced in his lifetime.

40
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44
Bibliography- Websites
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