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                                                           CONTENTS



SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................1
   What are Natural Gas and Liquefied Natural Gas? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
   Why Do We Need LNG? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
   How LNG is Made and Delivered to Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
   Measuring LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
   A Brief History of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
   The Current LNG Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

SECTION TWO: WORLD SUPPLY AND                                               DEMAND .............................13
   World Natural Gas Demand . . . . . . . .                                . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
   World Natural Gas Supply . . . . . . . . .                              . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
   Matching Supply and Demand . . . . . . .                                . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
               Supply and Demand in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
               Supply and Demand in North America                                 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
               Supply and Demand in Asia, the Pacific and the Middle East . . . . . . . . . .18
               Supply and Demand in South and Central America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
          Supply and Demand in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
       Summary of World Supply and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

S E C T I O N T H R E E : L I Q U E FA C T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5
      Liquefaction Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
               Removal of Impurities and Recovery of NGLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
               Liquefaction of the Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
               Storage and Pumping the LNG into Tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
            Ship Loading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
       Liquefaction Plant Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
               Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
            Variable Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
       Liquefaction Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
               Existing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
           Proposed and Future Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
       Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32


                                                                                                                                                     v
CONTENTS




    SECTION FOUR: SHIPPING ......................................................35
       Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
                   The Hull and Containment System                              . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
                   Vapor Capture and Cargo Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
                   Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
               Loading and Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
           Ship Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
           Shipping Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
                   Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
               Variable Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
           The LNG Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
                   The Existing Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
               Future Fleets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
           Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

    S E C T I O N F I V E : R E G A S I F I C AT I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
          Regasification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
                   Berthing and Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
i                  Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
                   Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
                   Delivery into the Pipeline Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
               Offshore Regasification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
           Onshore Regasification Plant Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
                   Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
               Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
           Regasification Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
                   Existing Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
                   Future Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
                   Future Storage Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
               Future Offshore Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
           Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

    S E C T I O N S I X : S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3
          Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
                   Physical Properties of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
                   Specific Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
                          Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
                          Vapor Cloud Fires                 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
                          Rapid Phase Transition Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
                          Additional Hazards of Leaking or Spilled LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

    vi
U N D E R S TA N D I N G T O D AY ’ S G L O B A L L N G B U S I N E S S




              LNG and Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
              Risks Relative to Other Industries                    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
              The Historical Safety Record of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
            Handling Safety and Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
       Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
       Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

S E C T I O N S E V E N : R E G U L AT I O N A N D P E R M I T T I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5
      Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
              Liquefaction Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
              Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
              Regasification Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
           Offshore Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
       Permitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

S E C T I O N E I G H T: M A R K E T D Y N A M I C S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7
      The LNG Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
      Market Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
      Contract Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
      Risk Management in the LNG Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
      Financing LNG Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
      The Current State of the LNG Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

SECTION NINE: THE FUTURE ..................................................105
   Technology Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
   Geopolitical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
   Market Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
              Will LNG Demand Continue to Grow? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
              Will Investment be Available to Construct the Necessary Infrastructure? . .109
              How Will the LNG Business Adapt to Short-term Markets? . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
              How Will Future Prices be Determined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
           Who Will Dominate the Future Marketplace? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
       Global Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY .......................................................115

APPENDIX B: LNG UNITS ......................................................125

APPENDIX C: ACRONYMS ......................................................127

A P P E N D I X D : W O R L D W I D E L I Q U E FA C T I O N T E R M I N A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 1



                                                                                                                                         vii
CONTENTS




    A P P E N D I X E : W O R L D W I D E R E G A S I F I C AT I O N T E R M I N A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 7

    APPENDIX F: INDEX .............................................................143




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    viii

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Understanding Today's Global LNG Business: Table of Contents

  • 1. i CONTENTS SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................1 What are Natural Gas and Liquefied Natural Gas? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Why Do We Need LNG? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 How LNG is Made and Delivered to Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Measuring LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 A Brief History of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 The Current LNG Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 SECTION TWO: WORLD SUPPLY AND DEMAND .............................13 World Natural Gas Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 World Natural Gas Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Matching Supply and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Supply and Demand in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Supply and Demand in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Supply and Demand in Asia, the Pacific and the Middle East . . . . . . . . . .18 Supply and Demand in South and Central America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Supply and Demand in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Summary of World Supply and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 S E C T I O N T H R E E : L I Q U E FA C T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 Liquefaction Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Removal of Impurities and Recovery of NGLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Liquefaction of the Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Storage and Pumping the LNG into Tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Ship Loading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Liquefaction Plant Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Variable Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Liquefaction Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Existing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Proposed and Future Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 v
  • 2. CONTENTS SECTION FOUR: SHIPPING ......................................................35 Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 The Hull and Containment System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Vapor Capture and Cargo Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 Loading and Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 Ship Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Shipping Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Variable Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 The LNG Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 The Existing Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Future Fleets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 S E C T I O N F I V E : R E G A S I F I C AT I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9 Regasification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Berthing and Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 i Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Delivery into the Pipeline Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Offshore Regasification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Onshore Regasification Plant Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Regasification Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Existing Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Future Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Future Storage Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Future Offshore Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Key Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 S E C T I O N S I X : S A F E T Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L C O N C E R N S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3 Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Physical Properties of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Specific Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Vapor Cloud Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Rapid Phase Transition Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Additional Hazards of Leaking or Spilled LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 vi
  • 3. U N D E R S TA N D I N G T O D AY ’ S G L O B A L L N G B U S I N E S S LNG and Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Risks Relative to Other Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 The Historical Safety Record of LNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Handling Safety and Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 S E C T I O N S E V E N : R E G U L AT I O N A N D P E R M I T T I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 Liquefaction Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Regasification Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Offshore Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Permitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 S E C T I O N E I G H T: M A R K E T D Y N A M I C S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7 The LNG Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Market Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Contract Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Risk Management in the LNG Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 Financing LNG Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 The Current State of the LNG Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 SECTION NINE: THE FUTURE ..................................................105 Technology Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Geopolitical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Market Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Will LNG Demand Continue to Grow? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Will Investment be Available to Construct the Necessary Infrastructure? . .109 How Will the LNG Business Adapt to Short-term Markets? . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 How Will Future Prices be Determined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 Who Will Dominate the Future Marketplace? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 Global Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY .......................................................115 APPENDIX B: LNG UNITS ......................................................125 APPENDIX C: ACRONYMS ......................................................127 A P P E N D I X D : W O R L D W I D E L I Q U E FA C T I O N T E R M I N A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 1 vii
  • 4. CONTENTS A P P E N D I X E : W O R L D W I D E R E G A S I F I C AT I O N T E R M I N A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 7 APPENDIX F: INDEX .............................................................143 i viii