德國技職教育制度對弱勢學生整合的優劣之處

The German vocational education and training system
Strengths and weaknesses concerning the integration
of disadvantaged youth
Heike Solga
Taipei, October 15, 2016

The German “Apprenticeship Miracle”?
– 2 –
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
NOR
AUS
NLD
CHE
AUT
JAP
Germany
LUX
CAN
ICE
NZ
UK
FIN
CZE
USA
ISR
SWE
EST
DEN
BEL
FRA
Taiwan
POL
HUN
SLV
SLO
ITA
IRE
PRT
ESP
GRC
Relativeunemployment(youthvs.prime-age)
Unemploymentin%
Youth unemployment rate (15-24, 2012) in %
Youth unemployment (15-24 year-olds)
Prime-age unemployment (25-54 year-olds)
Relative

– 3 –

– 4 –
EU Communiqué in Dec. 2012: “Moving Youth into Employment” including
several concrete initiatives
“European Alliance for Apprenticeships”:
“Apprenticeships and work-based learning appear to ease the transition
from education and training to work. Boosting the quality and supply of
apprenticeships is therefore one of the EU policy initiatives to address the
unprecedented levels of youth unemployment.”
(http://ec.europa.eu/education/apprenticeship/index_en.htm)

– 5 –

– 6 –
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
NOR
AUS
NLD
CHE
AUT
JAP
Germany
LUX
CAN
ICE
NZ
UK
FIN
CZE
USA
ISR
SWE
EST
DEN
BEL
FRA
Taiwan
POL
HUN
SLV
SLO
ITA
IRE
PRT
ESP
GRC
Unemploymentin%
Relative

– 7 –
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
NOR
AUS
NLD
CHE
AUT
JAP
Germany
LUX
CAN
ICE
NZ
UK
FIN
CZE
USA
ISR
SWE
EST
DEN
BEL
FRA
Taiwan
POL
HUN
SLV
SLO
ITA
IRE
PRT
ESP
GRC
Unemploymentin%
Relative

– 8 –
AUSAUT
BEL
CANCZE
DEN
EST
FIN
FRA
DEU
GRC
HUN
ICE
IRE
ISR
ITA
JAPLUXNLD
NZ
NOR
POL
Taiwan
PRT
SLO
SLV
ESP
SWE
CHE
UK
USA
R² = 0,9091
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0
Prime-ageunemployment(25-54)
Youth unemployment (15-24)

– 9 –
AUSAUT
BEL
CANCZE
DEN
EST
FIN
FRA
DEU
GRC
HUN
ICE
IRE
ISR
ITA
JAPLUXNLD
NZ
NOR
POL
Taiwan
PRT
SLO
SLV
ESP
SWE
CHE
UK
USA
R² = 0,9091
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0
Prime-ageunemployment(25-54)
Youth unemployment (15-24)
Economic problems
Taiwan: youth problem

– 10 –
Aim of the lecture
 To improve your knowledge about the German VET system
(vertical stratification of VET)
 To provide insights into the relationship between school achievement
and access to VET programs (social stratification of VET)
 Consider some strengths, weaknesses, and challenges of the German
VET system

– 11 –
1. Vertical stratification of the German VET system

– 12 –
1. Vertical stratification of the German VET system
3 dimensions
a. Fully qualifying vs. prevocational programs (sub-sectors)
b. Vertical stratification within fully qualifying programs
c. VET vs. higher education (tertiary) programs

– 13 –
1. Vertical stratification: a) sub-sectors
New enrolments into VET programs, 2012

– 14 –
New enrolments into VET programs, 2012

– 15 –
Dual system
 organized by the Federal Vocational Training Act (Federal Government,
German states, both social partners: trade unions and employer
associations)
 currently 329 apprenticeship occupations (from 901 in 1950)
School-based VET programs
 organized by the 16 German states
 mainly health, education and social work occupations (“female” occ.)
 Often require a “Abitur” (university entrance qualification)
 instruction principle (work-based) similar
 only governance structure differently – but programs in both sectors can
be transferred between firms
 access to programs are highly competitive (recruitment by firms or
schools – with limited VET places )

– 16 –
Dual system
 organized by the Federal Vocational Training Act (Federal Government,
German states, both social partners)
 mainly health, education and social work occupations (“female” occ.)
 Often require a “Abitur” (university entrance qualification)
 only governance structure differently – but programs in both sectors can
be transferred between firms
schools – with limited VET places )

– 17 –
Dual system
 organized by the Federal Vocational Training Act
(Federal Government, German states, both social partners)
 mainly health, education and social work occupations (“female” occupations)
 Often require a “Abitur/high school degree” (university entrance qualification)
Similarities
 fully qualifying (recognized vocational degree)
schools – with limited VET places)
Differences
 governance (including financial) structure differently
 occupations trained for

– 18 –
Prevocational training measures
New enrolments: More than 250,000 young people since more than 10 yrs.
Compulsory participation in vocational education (until age 18)
Waiting loops for youth with intermediate school-leaving degree
Only about 1/3 of participants w/o low school-leaving degree is able to enter fully
qualifying VET programs afterwards

– 19 –
Prevocational training measures
New enrolments: More than 250,000 young people since more than 10 yrs.
 Compulsory participation in vocational education (until age 18)
 Waiting loops for youth with intermediate school-leaving degree
 Only about 1/3 of participants w/o low school-leaving degree is able to enter fully
qualifying VET programs afterwards

– 20 –
1. Vertical stratification: b) within fully qualifying sector
4 (hierarchical) segments of the “dual system”
Lowest segment:
Occupations in low-paying and insecure crafts, agriculture, lower skilled
service jobs (e.g. shop assistant, hairdresser, plumber, construction workers)
-- shop assistants: 14% unemployment, 31% marginal employment
Lower middle segment:
Occupations with slightly better employment chances (management
assistant in retails, electronics technicians
Upper middle segment:
Well-paying industry and commerce occupations (e.g., mechatronics
technician, industrial mechanics, management assistants in wholesale)
Highest segment:
Higher skilled and higher status skilled occupations (e.g., bank clerk,
insurance clerks, IT specialists )
-- Bank and insurance clerk: 1.3 % unemployment rate

– 21 –
Lowest segment (27%)
service jobs (e.g., shop assistant, hairdresser, plumber, construction worker)
Lower middle segment (16%)
Occupations with slightly better employment chances (e.g. management
assistant in retails, electronics technician)
Upper middle segment (26%)
technician, industrial mechanics, management assistants in wholesale)
Highest segment (13%)
insurance clerks, IT specialists )
(18% not classified)

– 22 –
Occupations with slightly better employment chances (e.g., management
technician, industrial mechanics, management assistant in wholesale)
insurance clerks, IT specialist)

– 23 –
Occupations with slightly better employment chances (e.g., management
technician, industrial mechanics, management assistant in wholesale)
insurance clerk, IT specialist)
(18% not classified)

– 24 –
4 (hierarchical) segments of the “school-based sector”
Lowest segment (8%)
(Semi-skilled) assistant occupations (e.g., elderly care assistant, housekeeper
assistant)
Skilled occupations (e.g., geriatric nurse, assistant social education worker)
Higher skilled occupations (e.g., nurse, child/youth care worker)
Highest skilled occupations (e.g., physiotherapist, social worker)
(7% not classified)

– 25 –
1. Vertical stratification: c) between VET & HE
De jure: It is possible to enroll into HE (university) programs without a
university entrance diploma (“Abitur”) after completing a VET program (of at
least 3 years)
De facto: The share of so‐called “non‐traditional” students is very small:
about 2 percent of all university students.
Growing number of so‐called “dual study programs”:
 “hybrid” form of apprenticeship training and university education,
conducted by large firms.
 Students in these programs have a trainee contract with an employer and
graduate with both a vocational certificate and a bachelor’s degree
(mostly from universities of applied science).
 increasing, but over all (still) small: 4% of all new HE enrolments (2013)

– 26 –
1. Vertical stratification: c) between VET & HE
De jure: It is possible to enroll into HE (university) programs without a
university entrance diploma (“Abitur”) after completing a VET program (of at
least 3 years)
De facto: The share of so‐called “non‐traditional” students is very small:
about 2 percent of all university students.
Growing number of so‐called “dual study programs”:
 “Hybrid” form of apprenticeship training and university education,
conducted by large firms
 Students in these programs have a trainee contract with an employer and
graduate with both a vocational certificate and a bachelor’s degree
(mostly from universities of applied sciences)
 Students have an “Abitur” (usually with very good grade – because of
competition)
 Increasing, but over all (still) small: 5% of all new HE enrolments (2014)

– 27 –
2. Social stratification the German VET system
High association between social origin and school attainment in Germany
 focus on school attainment & access to VET programs

– 28 –
De jure:
All school
leavers are
entitled to
enter fully
qualifying VET
programs

– 29 –
Educational attainment of apprentices, 1970 and 2011

– 30 –
Educational distribution of new enrolment in VET sectors, 2012

– 31 –
Enrolment in VET sectors by educational attainment, 2012

– 32 –
2. Social stratification of prevocational sector
Prevocational programs by educational attainment

Educational distribution of the apprentices in the four segments of
the dual system
– 33 –
2. Social stratification of fully qualifying sector

Educational distribution of the apprentices in the four segments of
the school-based sector
– 34 –
2. Social stratification of fully qualifying sector

– 35 –
De facto:
Placement in
VET system is
highly
structured by
school degree

– 36 –
3. Weaknesses, challenges and strengths of German VET system

– 37 –
Weaknesses:
 To integrate low-achieving youth
 13% of 25-34-year-olds without VET/university degree (ca. 1.5 Mio.)
 Exclusion of those without completed voc. training from labor market
 Even semi-skilled jobs are “training occupations” in Germany
(lowest segment of VET system)
 Unemployment rate of low-qualified adults: above 25%
 Permeability between occupations: need to be trained in new occupation
or high risks of downward mobility (credentialism)
 Permeability between VET and HE: social immobility (starts in school and
is reinforced in the VET system)

– 38 –
Challenges:
 Industry 4.0 / faster pace of technological development
& pace of changing in training regulations
 Decreasing attractiveness for higher-achieving school leavers

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
1995 /// 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Prevocational sector Dual system
School-based sector university
New enrolment in VET and HE system, 1995, 2000 – 2015
– 39 –

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
1995 /// 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Prevocational sector Dual system
School-based sector university
New enrolment in VET and HE system, 1995, 2000 – 2015
– 40 –

– 41 –
Challenges:
 Industry 4.0 / faster pace of technological development
& pace of changing in training regulations
 Decreasing attractiveness for higher-achieving school leavers
 “Supply” of sufficient number of youth to the VET system is at risk:
 Shrinking “middle”
 Demographic change
 Discrimination of migrants

– 42 –
Strengths:
 Early integration into the labor market
 Starts with apprenticeships
 Training in vocational skills
 Still more than 60% of apprenticeship graduates remain in
training firm today
 VET system mitigates some of the negative effects of tracking in lower and
upper secondary education (see Heisig & Solga, 2015, Sociology of
Education)

– 43 –
Summary
 The German VET system is more than apprenticeships
 Institutionally, very demanding
 It is integrative (not polarized qualification structure) and exclusionary (of
those who remain “less educated”) at the same time
 Its future is unknown: the German economy need this intermediate level
of qualification – but the young people increasingly enter university –
increasing trend of dual study programs (?)

– 44 –
Lessons for Taiwan (?)
 Taiwan: Majority of young adults enter tertiary education (also the
majority of those who attended vocational secondary education)
 What would be the status of “apprenticeships” in such an
environment?
 Dual study programs maybe more suitable for Taiwan
 Less demanding in institutional term (would “only”
require a college-firm linkage)
 But maybe more accepted (attractive for young people)
 How do you integrate low(er) achieving youth? Would they be accepted
by firms as apprentices?

– 45 –
Further readings
Protsch, Paula & Heike Solga (2015). The social stratification of the German
VET system. Journal of Education and Work.
Jacob, Marita & Heike Solga (2015). The German Vocational Education and
Training System in Transformation: Changes in the participation of low- and
high-achieving youth over time. European Sociological Review.
Heisig, Jan Paul & Heike Solga (2015). Secondary education systems and the
general skills of less- and intermediate-educated adults: A comparison of 18
countries. Sociology of Education

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德國技職教育制度對弱勢學生整合的優劣之處