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Behavioural sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioural interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present, and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation.[1] Examples of behavioral sciences include psychology, psychobiology, anthropology, and cognitive science. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society
2. Introduction
Social and behavioral sciences
Sociology
- Structural aspects of society
- Functional aspects of society
- Type of social relationships
- Family
- Community
Social stratification
3. Social psychology
- Behavior
- Personality
- Motivation
- Learning
- Emotions
Cultural anthropology
Impact
- Impact SES and oral health & disease
- Family in health and disease
- Cultural factors in health and disease
Conclusion
References
4. Why study social and behavioral
factors in public health?
Mid 18’th century- smallpox, cholera, tuberculosis –
moral and spiritual depravity.
19’th century- same disease widespread- foul air
emitted.
20’th century- germs – water purification,
immunization.
Kinds of disease prevalent changed dramatically,
etiology changed and public health action expanded
enormously in scope and complexity.
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6. With emergence of chronic diseases, injury,
substance abuse focus shifted to social and
behavioral approaches to disease prevention and
health promotion.
Referred to as New Public Health.
Now view individuals health as shaped by complex
interacting systems of biological, social and
environmental factors. J Coreil, CA Bryant, JN Henderson. Social
and behavioral foundations of public health,
Sage publications-California.
7. Social environment as important as physical and
biological environments.
Effect clearly reflected in the differences in morbidity
patterns - rural vs. urban areas, developing vs.
developed countries.
Public health problems are closely related to the
lifestyles of people
8. Socioeconomic and political factors are
important determinants of health.
"We have astronauts flying in space ships, but
we don't have enough wheel chairs". (Naina)
USA - family planning and immunisation
services not available free, as in India.
9. Term social environment denotes the complex of
psychosocial factors.
Includes cultural, values, customs, habits, beliefs,
attitudes, morals, religion, education, income,
occupation, standard of living, community life and the
social and political organisation.
Multiple nature of factors involved - psycho
socioeconomic environment.
12. 1. Community health:
Workers faced with the problem of why people who
need a particular service are least likely to use it.
The question is why do people behave as they do?
Western countries - mental health, hospital
organisation, social class difference in disease,
rehabilitation, and professional roles and
relationships.
Many community health problems are social
problems and vice versa.
13. 2. Clinical Medicine:
Social scientists investigate life situations of
the patients - linkages between specific life
situations and specific types and cases of
illness.
Clinicians have also shown interest in what is
known as “illness behavior” of patients.
Present medical sciences insufficient to train
physician to cope with sociocultural aspects.
14. 3. Epidemiology
Epidemiologists - close alliance with social
scientists - studying distribution of health and
disease in human population, and factors that
cause the distribution.
Disease studied in relationship to factors such
as social status, income, occupation, housing,
overcrowding, social customs, habits and
behaviour.
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17. ‘Social Sciences’ applied to disciplines which are
committed to the scientific examination of human
behavior.
These are Economics, Political science,
Sociology, Social psychology and Social
anthropology.
‘Behavioral Sciences' is applied to Sociology,
Social psychology and Social anthropology,
because they deal directly with human behavior.
18. Economics:
Field of economics -very close relationship with
sociology. Parent discipline from which sociology has
emerged.
Economics deals with human relationships in context
of production, distribution, consumption and
ownership of scarce resources, goods and services.
Sociology and economics overlap in many senses;
both are concerned with interdependence in human
relations.
19. Political Science
Historically economics and political science tended
to be a single discipline.
Political science is concerned with the study of the
system of laws and institutions which constitute
government of whole societies.
21. Sociology derived from the Latin socio - society and
the Greek logos- science.
Society is derived from the root words socius -
individual and societa - group.
Society is a group of individuals who have organised
themselves and follow a given way of life.
Sociology is the study of individuals as well as
groups in a society.
22. Sociology can be viewed from two angles:
A) It can be seen as the study of relationships
between human beings.
B) The other part of sociology is concerned with the
study of human behaviour.
Sociologists are interested in the study of the sociaL
determinants of human behaviour.
23. Sociological schools of thought
Consensus theory: It emphasizes the contributions (functions) that
each part of a society makes to it.
Assumes that most members of a society have a consensus on values
and interests.
Conflict theory:
Focus on the inheritable disagreements among people in groups, and
individuals and groups compete (conflicts) with one another to preserve and
promote their own special values and interest.
24. Interactionism:
Interactionists are concerned with how people
interpret the social situations they are participating
in.
Attempts to understand social life from viewpoint of
individual
Petersen PK. Society and oral health. In. Pine
CM. Community oral health. 1997.ed. Mumbai.
Km Varghese company. 20-37
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26. Can be divided in 2 types:
Structural aspects of society
Functional aspects of society
Gupta MC, Mahajan BK Textbook of preventive and
social medicine. 2003 3rd ed. Jaypee medical
publishers 109-120.
27. Structural aspects of society
A. Social Institutions: Structure through which human
society organises, directs and executes the activities
required to satisfy human needs. E.g., family, school,
hospital, parliament.
B. Community: Group, small or large, living together
in such away that the members share not one or
more specific interests but rather the basic
conditions of a common life.
28. C. Associations: Groups of people, united for a
specific purpose or a limited number of purposes
and are based on utilitarian interest, e.g., Junior
Doctors Association.
When an association serves a broad interest and
does so in an accepted, orderly and enduring way, it
may be called an institution. E.g., Indian Medial
Association.
29. Functional aspects of society
A. Social Norms:
Society is an organisation made by man for himself.
Every living organism has some basic requirements
and tries its best to satisfy them.
In animals, these needs give rise to the basic desires
or instincts which the animal tries to satisfy without
inhibition.
30. In man, biological forces trigger the desires but,
contrary to animals, there are social standards which
guide man.
Every society specifies certain rules of conduct to be
followed by its members in certain situations.
These specified rules of conduct are technically
known as social norms.
Folkways, Mores, Laws.
31. Folkways:
Customary ways of behaviour - obligatory in the
proper situation.
Enforced by informal social controls like gossip and
ridicule. e.g., ways of eating, dressing, greeting.
Folkways vary from society to society and culture to
culture. Certain folkways may be common, but
otherwise they lend uniqueness to a culture.
They are necessary for the group solidarity.
32. Mores
Socially acceptable ways of behaviour that involve
moral standards.
There is greater feeling of horror about violating
mores and greater unwillingness to see them
violated.
Believed to be essential for social welfare. Sanctions
are informal and the reactions of group are
spontaneous rather then official action.
33. Taboos:
Specific types of mores expressed in negative.
Examples are abstinence from beef, pork and
smoking in Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.
34. Laws
Some important mores are converted into law in
order to ensure implementation.
Last step in the formulation of rules of conduct in a
society.
Laws are not only prescribed in written form but are
enforced.
35. Social Norms and their origin
Gupta MC, Mahajan BK Textbook of preventive and
social medicine. 2003 3rd ed. Jaypee medical
publishers 109-120.
36. B. Customs and Habits
Custom is a broad term embracing all the norms
classified as folkways and mores.
It refers primarily to practices that have been repeated
by a number of generations.
Customs have a traditional, automatic, mass character.
37. Habit is a purely personal affair, not entailing any
obligation.
e.g., cup of bed tea, bathing daily, etc.
When habits are shared for their necessity and are
sanctioned by the society, they are converted into
customs in due course of time.
38. C. Etiquettes and Conventions
Etiquettes are concerned with choice of the proper
form for doing something in relation to other people.
Convention is merely an agreed upon procedure.
Thus entering a bus from the rear with exit from front
is a convention.
When a procedure is adopted and repeated time and
again, it may become a rule.
39. D. Social Values
Constitute important part of the selective behaviour
of man.
Standards of judgement by which things and actions
are evaluated as good or bad, moral or immoral,
beautiful or ugly.
Norms and values are not the same things. Values
are directive principles of human action.
Norms are the enactment of social values.
41. Society is a group of individuals drawn together by a
common bond of nearness who act together in
general for the achievement of certain common
goals.
Individual needs the group - not necessarily a
particular group or always the same group or the
same group for all needs.
Different groups are needed for different purposes;
these groups comprise social organisation.
42. Social groups to which people belong are the family,
and caste, religion, village, town or city and the state.
Other functional groups also there such as the
panchayat, the club and various associations.
43. 1. The Family: Basic unit in all societies. Most powerful
example of social cohesion.
2. Religion and Caste: The caste system in India is an
example of a “closed class”. Each caste is governed
by certain rules and sanctions relating to endogamy,
food taboos, ritual purity, etc.
Each caste group within a village expected to give
certain standardized services to families of other
castes.
44. 3. Temporary Social Groups
(A) The Crowd: When a group of people come together
temporarily, for a short period, motivated by a
common interest curiosity.
Lacks internal organisation and leadership. Interest
over, the crowd disperses.
(B) The Mob: Essentially a crowd, but has a leader
who forces the members into action.
Is unstable and without internal organisation.
Purpose is achieved, the group disperses.
45. (C) The Herd: Also a crowd with a leader. Here the
members of the group have to follow the orders of
the leader without question.
e.g., tourist group under a guide.
46. 4. Permanent Spatial Groups
1) The Band: Most elementary community of a few families
living together. Here the group has organised itself and
follows a pattern of life e.g., gypsies.
2) Village: Is a small collection of people permanently
settled down in a locality with their homes and cultural
equipments. Village has constituted a basic unit in India.
According to the 2001 census, there were 6,38,000
villages in India. Average population of village estimated
to be 550.
47. (3) The Towns and Cities: Relatively large, dense and
permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals.
The community is subdivided into smaller groups on
the basis of wealth and social class.
The 2001 Census enumerated 5,545 towns and
cities in India.
There were only 107 cities in India at the time of
1961 census.
48. (4) The State: Ecological social group based on
territory. It is more stabilised and formalised.
It is heterogeneous in nature. The Indian Union is a
large State.
49. 5. Government and political organisation
Some form of government is detectable even among
primitive societies.
Government is an association of which law is the
institutional activity.
There is no society which lacks government.
Supreme agent authorised to regulate the balanced
social life in the interests of the public.
50. (1) Democracy : This is government of the people, by the people
and for the people e.g., India and USA.
(2) Autocracy : The ruler is absolute in his power e.g., Jordan and
Ethiopia.
(3) Monarchy: The head of the State is a monarch e.g., UK, and
Nepal.
(4} Socialistic: The production and wealth are owned and
controlled by the State. E.g., China and Poland.
(5) Oligarchy: The country is ruled by a family group e.g.,
Thailand, Cambodia, Saudi Arabia.
51. In Capitalist countries, medical service is given to the
population by various agencies in various ways.
State medicine, insurance medicine, charity
medicine and private medicine exist side by side.
Medicine has developed into a trade - a service that
is purchased by the patient and sold by the physician
under a competitive system.
52. In socialist countries, medicine, like education, is not
a trade; it is a public function of society.
All health activities are directed and controlled by
central bodies.
Medical service is free and therefore available to all -
socialized medicine.
Park. Social sciences and health. In: Park.
Social & preventive medicine. 2007. 19th
ed.500-501.
54. Social relationship is defined as “sets and patterns of
sequences of social interactions”.
While describing social relationship we consider two
aspects : dimensions and types.
There are two dimensions of social relationship.
They are quantitative and qualitative dimensions.
Kulkarni AP. Textbook of community
Medicine. 2002. 2nd ed. Mumbai.
Vora medical publication. 28-35.
55. Types of social relationship :
Kingsley Davis has described two types of social
relationships.
I) Primary relationship: Individuals involved are small in
number.
Live in spatial proximity and the duration of the
interaction is long.
Persons involved have intimate knowledge of each
other.
56. ii) Secondary relationship :
Number of individuals involved is large - live at
distance from each other - duration of contact is
short.
Limited and specialized knowledge of each other.
Feeling of external constraints in the relations and
likelihood of disparity of goals.
58. Doctor Patient Relationship - An Example of
Primary Social Relationship:
All the quantitative ingredients required for a primary
social relationship.
The number of individuals involved in the relationship
is small, in close proximity and the duration of
contact can be lifelong.
Yet the relationship is drifting to secondary type.
59. Some of the measures on the part of the doctors to improve
the situation.
A) Give more time for the patient to narrate his complaints.
B) Widen the scope of exchanges. Include family life, hobbies etc.
- will help diagnosis and assist management.
C) Respect the emotions of the patient.
D) Regard patient as a patient and not as a customer.
E) Consider patient welfare above self. Embedded in the welfare
of the patient is welfare of doctor.
Kulkarni AP. Textbook of community
Medicine. 2002. 2nd ed. Mumbai. Vora
medical publication. 28-35.
60. Models of doctor patient relationship
Paternalistic model:
Presents selective information.
Patient gives consent to treatment.
Doctor acts as parents/ guardian.
Informative model:
Presents all relevant information.
Patient free to weigh pros and cons.
Patients values, attitude determine what treatment to
be given.
61. Interpretive model:
Doctor aims at elucidating patients values and wishes.
Helps to select from possible alternative interventions one
which will help the patient to realize values.
Doctor does not dictate anything.
Joint process with final decision resting with the patient.
Deliberative model:
Doctor acts as a guide and teacher – active part.
Can indicate which course of action patient should follow.
62. Dentist patient relationship - Crandell
Friend
Saviour
Parent
Servant
Provider
Adversary
Sathe PV and Sathe AP.
Social sciences. 2nd ed.
Mumbai. Popular prakashan.
64. What is a group?
A human group in sociological sense is any number
of persons who:
I) Interact with one another in a given situation or
context more than they interact with any one else.
ii) Are psychologically aware of one another.
iii) Perceive or are conscious of themselves as a
group.
Bhaskar Rao. Textbook of community
medicine.2004 1st ed. Paras medical
publishers 29-71.
65. Why do the individuals form groups?
I) Proximity : Individuals affiliate due to spatial or
geographic closeness. - Small groups only.
ii) Homan’s Theory: George Homan.
Individuals have problems and tensions. They
want to attain certain goals. They feel necessity
of co-operation of others. These factors create a
need to come together.
67. 4. Tibut and Kelly’s Theory
Depends on four factors:
Reward - Activity resulting in gratification of needs.
Cost - Cost of engaging in activity with other person including
cost of punishment.
Outcome - Difference between the reward and cost.
Comparison - It is the minimum level of outcome based on
comparison with identical/similar situation in past.
Bhaskar Rao. Textbook of community
medicine.2004 1st ed. Paras medical
publishers 29-71.
69. Primary unit in all societies. A group of biologically
related individuals living together and eating from
common kitchen.
Term family differs from household in that all the
members of a household may not be blood relations,
e.g., servants.
70. As a biological unit - share a pool of genes.
As a social unit - share common physical and social
environment.
As a cultural unit - family reflects the culture of the
wider society.
71. The family is also an epidemiological unit and a unit
for providing social services as well as
comprehensive medical care.
To avoid confusion, social scientists have used the
term:
(1) Family of origin - the family into which one is born.
(2) Family of procreation - family which one sets up
after marriage.
72. Types of Families
Family units throughout the world are not the same.
Industrialization, urbanisation, democratization and
acculturation have affected the family structure and
life.
Social scientists have described three main types of
families.
1. Nuclear Family
2. Joint Family
3. Three Generation Family
73. 1. Nuclear Family
The nuclear or elementary family is universal in all
human societies.
Married couple and their children while they are still
regarded as dependents.
Same dwelling space. Husband usually plays a
dominant role in the household.
“New Families“ - applied to those under 10 years
duration
74. 2. Joint Family
Common in India, Africa, the Far East and the
Middle East.
More common in agricultural areas than in urban
areas.
The orthodox Hindu family in India is a joint family.
75. Consists of number of married couples and their
children living together in the same household.
All the property is held in common.
All the authority Is vested in the senior male member
of the family. He is the most dominant member and
controls the internal and external affairs.
The merit of the joint family system is that it is based
on the motto: "union is strength”. There is a sharing
of responsibilities.
76. 3. Three Generation Family
Confused with the joint family. It is fairly common in
the west.
Household where there are representatives of three
generations.
Young couples are unable to find separate housing
accommodation and continue to live with their
parents and have their own children.
Thus, representatives of three generations live
together.
77.
78. Functions of family
1. Residence
2. Division of labour
3. Reproduction and bringing up of children.
4. Socialization
5. Economic functions
6. Social care
80. Characteristics of community
Geographic delimitation
Objective of group formation
Self reliance
Presence of institutions
Social structure
84. Major functions (Cokin Clark)
On the basis of economic functions of the majority of
inhabitants.
i) Primary: Extractive nature. Individuals are exposed directly to
the physical environmental and raw material are extracted from
it. E.g., agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining etc.
ii) Secondary: Raw materials are processed and altered. E.g.,
fabricating, auto industry etc.
iii) Tertiary: Activities mainly consist of services. E.g., distribution
of raw processed goods, services like finance, communication,
defense, recreation, education etc.
I
85. Urban-Rural
i) Urban area : a community is called urban if –
a) Population is above 5000
b) At least 75% of male working population is
engaged in non-agricultural and allied occupational
activities
c) Population density is at least 400 person per
square kilometer
d) Declared as urban area by Govt. of India,
86. ii) Urban agglomeration: An urban agglomeration may
constitute –
a) A city with a continuous outgrowth (the part of
outgrowth being outside the statutory limits but)
within the boundaries of adjoining village or
villages.
b) One town with similar outgrowth.
c) A city and one or more adjoining towns with their
outgrowth all of which form a continuous spread.
87. iii) Standard Urban Area (SUA) : This has following essential
requirements-
a) A core town of minimum population of 50000.
b) Continuous areas made up of other urban as well as
rural administrative units which have mutual socio-
economic links with the core town.
c) In all probabilities the entire area should get fully
urbanized within span of 2-3 decades.
iv) Village : Basic unit of rural area. It is a recognized unit
having definite boundaries and separate land records.
88. Community & Society – Difference?
1. Community sentiment.
2. Definite locality.
3. Community is the species of the society.
4. Community is concrete, society is abstract.
89. Social Stress
Condition of tension or feeling of uneasiness
or dissatisfaction in some sections or groups
of society.
Causes:
- Urbanisation
- Stratification
- Acculturation
90. Methods in Sociology
1. KAP studies
2. Social survey
- Measure social pathology
- Establish association
between social factors and
health problem.
3. Case study
91. Case study: Social and behavioral
dimensions of public health problem
The Exxon Valdez oil spill:
Grounding of tanker released 11 million
gallons crude oil- Native Alaska.
Damage from oil spill along with efforts to
clean up area set up events with profound
social, cultural and psychological impacts.
Coreil .J, CA Bryant, JN Henderson. Social and
behavioral foundations of public health,
Sage publications-California
94. Social Stratification/ Social inequality
In every society inequity exists in some or other
forms.
Why societies encourage inequity?
Functional requirements
Power
95. Consequences of stratification
Life chances
Lifestyle
Personality
Society and oral health. In. Pine CM.
Community oral health. 1997.ed. Mumbai.
K.M Varghese company. 20-37.
97. Black Report - 1980
Theories of Social inequalities in oral health
Artefact
Natural or social selection
Cultural explanations
Material explanations
Social capital
Society and oral health. In. Pine CM. Community
oral health. 1997.ed. Mumbai. K. M. Varghese
company. 20-37.
98. Characteristics used for social stratification
Three major systems
- Slavery- race – American society
- Caste –India – closed society
- Class –UK – occupation- open society
99. Occupation
- Urbanized & industrialized communities
- Major determinant of
Economic rewards
Extent of authority
Extent of obligations
Degree of status
Values & lifestyles
102. Education
Income
Purchasing power
Religion
Residence(rural/urban)
Area of residence (material deprivation)
Type of house ( kuccha/pucca)
Material possessions, expenditure, loan etc.
103. Socioeconomic status
The position that an individual or family occupies
with reference to the prevailing average standards
of cultural and material possessions, income and
participation in group activity of the community.
Social status –inherited
Modern society – achieved on basis of occupation,
income, type of housing, neighbourhood,
memberships, material possesions.
104. Various countries – different
UK – occupation
UK – material deprivation (area & neighborhood
based)
US- Income & Years of Education
India
105. India
For individual or family
Kuppuswamy’s scale – urban
Pareek’s – Rural family
Tiwari’s scale 2004 – Urban and rural communities
Prasad classification
WHO
Modified versions
111. Pareek’s scale - 1975
Rural family
Based upon nine items
1. Caste
2. Occupation of head of family
3. Education of head of family
4. Level of social participation of the head of the family
5. Land holding
6. Housing
112. 7. Farm power (draught animals like bullock, prestige animals
like camel, elephant, horse and mechanical power)
8. Material possessions
9. Family (type of family, family size and distinctive features of
family in respect of persons other than the head of family).
Five SES categories
Upper, Upper middle, Middle, Upper lower, and Lower
Kulkarni AP. Textbook of community
Medicine. 2002. 2nd ed. Mumbai. Vora
medical publication. 28-35.
113. Tiwari,s scale - 2004
Seven indicators selected – Urban and rural.
- House: Land area, house type
- Materials possession
- Education
- Occupation
- Monthly income
- Land
- Social participation and understanding
Five SES categories
Upper, Upper middle, Middle, Lower middle, Lower
S.C. Tiwari, Aditya Kumar & Ambrish Kumar. Development and Standardization
of a scale to measure socio economic status in urban and rural communities in India.
Indian J Med Res 122, October2005, pp309- 314.
114. WHO classification - 2004
Occupation
0 – non-skilled worker (peon, labourer)
1- skilled worker (carpenter, masion)
2- Professional
3- Business
4- House-wife
5- school-going child
6- non school going child
7- farmers/local occupation
8- non-employed
9- no available information
115. Deprivation & oral health
Black report – material standards of living
Conventional measures difficult to apply
Area-based measures
Socially homogenous – small areas
Post code required
Allow for geographic targeting of resources, services or
health promotion activities. Locker D. Deprivation and oral health: a
review. CDOE 2000; 28: 161-9.
116. Used as:
Substitute for individual or household level data on SES
of individual.
Supplements to individual or household data –
explanatory power to health inequalities research.
Replace conventional measures such as social class.
Surrogate indicators of needs for health care in small
geographic areas.
117. Index Description
Jarman (1983)
Townsend et al (1988)
Carstairs & Morris (1991)
Welsh underpriviliged area
score (1977)
Elderly living alone
Population aged under 5
One-parent families
Lowest social class unemployed
Overcrowded
Changed address within last year
Ethnic minorities
Economically active unemployed
Households with no car
Households not owner occupied
Households overcrowded
Overcrowding
Male unemployment
Lower social class: residents in
households headed by unskilled
No car
Based on Jarman index adjusted for
housing conditions & standardized
mortality ratios
118. Use of social class
Generalizations – lifestyles, behavior and attitudes of
others upon pattern for that group behavior.
119. Upper Middle class
Professional, business executive – well educated
Living in preferred area
Value their teeth
Preventive dentistry
Desire to have teeth as long as possible
Lower Middle class
Small business, minor executives, white collar workers
high school education
Well maintained neighborhood
Compulsive dental care
Socially presentable
Dentist - authority
126 men, women and children Mid Western community
120. Upper Lower class
Group – educational efforts
Behavioral & attitudinal changes
Skilled , semi skilled
Limited education, modest neighbourhoods
Resigned attitude to disease
Care from clinic
Lower class
Underpriviliged or disadvantaged
Unskilled
Limited education, slum areas
Neglect of teeth
121. Trithart 1968 – attitude of underprivileged toward
health care
Castration complex
Contradiction of common sense
Coming in crowds
Last ditch effort
If it hurts, you are a quack
Unclean or dirty feeling
Clinic built there not here
Cold professional attitude
Pain threshold
Complication of unknown
Pills don’t work
Appointments not important
Teeth lost anyhow
Traditions
Peter S. social sciences in dentistry. In: Peter S.
Essentials of preventive and community
dentistry. ed. 2001. New Delhi. Arya Publishing
house. 733-741.
122. Socioeconomic indicators –
Economics Country level
Gross national income (GNI) per capita (US$)
Gross domestic product per capita growth rate
Avg annual change in CPI%
Human development index
Dependency ratio
Adult literacy rate
Gross primary & secondary school enrolment
123.
124. Health & Socioeconomic status
Health promotes
- increased productivity
- decreased loss due to disease/death
- Decreased dependent population
125. Socioeconomic development
- decreases load of disease
- increase health care
- demographic effects
Social sciences and health. Park. Social &
preventive medicine. 2005. 19th ed.506-518
127. Psychology – Study of behaviour.
Social Psychology - Study of behaviour of society.
1) Psychological perspective: Concerned with the ways
in which individual behaviour and personality are
influenced by his social characteristics.
2) Sociological perspective: Concerned with the ways
in which individual’s psychological characteristics
influence social process.
128. Behaviour
Divided in 3 components:
Stimulus
Response – Overt: observable activity, Covert:
Unobservable activity.
Goals – “ Ultimate desired end, towards which
responses are directed”.
short term, long term
129. Factors affecting behaviour
Genetic core
Past experiences (learned behaviour)
Needs (biological, psychological)
Influence of the society
Tagets and goals
130. Types of behaviour
Active or purposeful
Reflex behaviour
Unconscious behaviour
Health behaviour
Illness behaviour
Treatment behaviour
131. Personality
Physical and mental traits which are characteristic of
a given individual.
Determine to some extent the individuals behaviour
or adjustment to its surroundings.
Psychology – study of human personality
Personality of doctor affects well being of patient.
132. Components of personality
1. External organization
a) Physical
b) Behaviour
2. Internal organization
a) Intelligence
b) Emotions – fear, anger, jealousy, irritability
c) Desires, attitudes, interest, behaviour
Basic traits develop by 6 years of age.
133. Personality traits
Cheerfulness
Good manners
Sportsmanship
Honesty
Kindliness
Doctor- kindliness, honesty, patience, tolerance,
presevarance, consciousness, thoroughness and
initiative.
•Loyality
•Reliability
•Sense of humor
•Tactfulness
•Willing to help others
134. Theories of personality
Carl Jung (1875 – 1961): Extrovert, Introvert.
Feud’s Psychoanalytic theory: Id, Ego, Superego
Carl Roger’s self theory: concept of I, me, myself.
Dollard’s and Miller’s learning theory of personality.
Bhaskar Rao. Textbook of community
medicine.2004 1st ed. Paras medical publishers.
135. Intelligence
“Is aggregate capacity of an individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with his environment”.
Maximum by age of 16 – 20 years
Concept of IQ by Binet and Simon, revised by Terman.
136. “ Is the ratio of mental age and chronological age.
Consist of four factors: Motor ability, Adoptive
behaviour, Language development, Personal-social
behaviour.
141 and above – Genius, 91-110 – average
Assessment of intelligence – Verbal test,
performance test
137. Learning
Important aspect of behaviour and
personality formation.
“defined as a process which brings relatively
permanent changes in behaviour of a learner
through experience or practice”.
138. Characteristics of learning
Process not a product – never ending.
Involves experience and training of individual which
help to produce changes in his behaviour.
Includes 3 domains of human behaviour:
Cognitive ( learning of knowledge like concepts,
principles, problem solving)
Affective (learning of habits, interest, feeling etc.)
Conative (walking, jumping, climbing etc.)
139. Prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment
and adaptation.
Purposeful and goal oriented.
Changes behaviour but not permanent.
Does not include changes in behaviour due to
senility, illness, drug, fatigue etc.
Universal and a continuous process.
141. Theories of learning
Psychodynamic theories
1.Classical Psychoanalytical – Sigmund Freud (1905)
2. Developmental task theory – Erik Erikson (1963)
3. Hierarchy of needs – Abraham Maslow
Behaviour learning theories
1. Classical conditioning theory – Ivan Pavlov (1927)
2. Operant conditioning – Skinner (1938)
3. Social learning theory – Albert Bandura (1963)
4. Theory of Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget (1952)
142. Others
1. Learning by conditioned reflex
2. Trial and error (Thorndike’s theory)
3. Learning by observation and imitation
4. Learning by doing
5. Learning by remembering
6. Learning by insight.
143. Motivation
Motivation is the desire to gratify the needs
and any activity or response directed or
oriented to such gratification.
The response/activity is overt and hence can
be seen.
But the desire cannot be seen and hence has
to be inferred from observable behaviour only.
144. (1) Achievement Motivation
Drive to pursue and attain goals. - Wishes to achieve objectives
and advance up on the ladder of success.
(2) Affiliation Motivation
Drive to relate to people on a social basis. - Work better when
complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-operation.
(3) Competence Motivation
Drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform
high quality work.
145. (4) Power Motivation
Drive to influence people and change situations. - Wish to
create an impact on their organization and are willing to take
risks to do so.
(5) Attitude Motivation
Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self
confidence, their belief in themselves, their attitude to life.
146. (6) Incentive Motivation
Person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It
is “You do this and you get that”, attitude.
(7) Fear Motivation
Person to act against will. It is instantaneous and
gets the job done quickly. It is helpful in the short
run.
www. laynetworks.com
147. Emotions
“Sudden force surfacing in the mind”. It is a response
to a stimulus or situation. Emotion is also called
affective state.
Emotions are of two types
1) Positive emotions :- Create a feeling of pleasure,
joy, love, mothering.
2) Negative emotion : Create a feeling of sadness,
sorrow, anger, hate, fear.
148. Appropriateness of emotion depends on situation.
Anger is a negative emotion.
‘Moral wrong’, then it will be considered appropriate.
Emotion can be a major barrier to communication.
Arrival of patient creates an emotion of sympathy -
development of doctor patient relationship.
Bhaskar Rao. Textbook of community
medicine.2004 1st ed. Paras medical
publishers.
150. Cultural Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of man and his works.
It is the study of physical, social and cultural history
of man.
Two broad divisions.
Physical anthropology: is the study of man as a
biological organism.
Cultural anthropology: is the branch dealing with
man's behaviour and products.
151. It is defined as Learned, non-random, systematic
behavior and knowledge that is transmitted from
person to person and from generation to generation.
It changes through time and is main contributor to
human adaptability.
Culture is learned and not biologically determined or
coded by hereditary material.
152. Survival strategies and other behaviors and thoughts
are learned from parents, other relatives, teachers,
friends, peers and so on.
Culture is non-random i.e. specific actions and
thoughts are usually the same in similar situation
within a society.
These specific behavior patterns in societies in a
particular situation are called Norms.
153. Culture is patterned i.e. it is systematic, wherein one
aspect of behavior is related to all others. It is part of
a system.
A system is a collection of parts that are interrelated
so that a change in any one part brings about
specific changes in others.
154. Oxford dictionary defines culture as, "the training and
refinement of mind, tastes and manners, the
condition of being thus trained and refined".
Man is distinguished from animals by virtue of the
fact that he possesses a culture, i.e. he can speak,
can frame ideas.
155. Culture has three parts. It is an experience which is
learned, shared and transmitted.
Culture is a social heritage, a product of specific and
unique history.
Civilization, on the other hand, is the whole
machinery or system of devices developed by man.
156. Branches of cultural Anthropology
Ethnology: Comparative study of cultures.
Archeology: Study of past cultures and civilizations and uses
their remain as principal source of information.
Linguistics: Study of speech patterns of man-language and
dialects.
Social anthropology: Comparative study of kinship and non
kinship organization patterns in different societies.
157. Acculturation
Means "culture contact."
Contact between two people with different types of
culture, there is diffusion of culture both ways.
Culture contact takes place - (1) trade and commerce, (2)
industrialisation, (3) propagation of religion, (4) education
and (5) conquest.
Introduction of scientific medicine is through culture
-contact.
158. Barriers of Acculturation
1. Resistance to cultural change:
- Mores and taboos
- Sense of superiority
- General cultural inertia
2. Adaptation
3. Physical isolation
162. Gilbert GH et al., 2003
Florida dental care study > 45 years
African –Americans & lower SES – strong determinants
of tooth loss
Sanders AE et al., 2004
3678 adults 18-91yrs Australia
Low household income, blue-collar occupation & high
residential area disadvantage - + pathological tooth loss
Tooth loss
Gilbert GH et al. Social determinants of tooth loss.
Health Serv Res. 2003 Dec;38:1843-62.
Sanders AE et al. Social inequality in perceived oral health among adults
in Australia. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2004 Apr;28(2):159-66
164. Edentulism
Related to SES
DCI – 2002-2003 – no significant differences – urban/rural
Burt. Dentistry, dental practice and
community. 2005. 6th ed.
165. Disease of poverty or deprivation
Klein (1930 -1940 )– lower SES – higher value for D &
M, lower values of F .
Higher SES groups –decline in caries experience
Dental caries
166.
167. Vary with different measures of SES ( private
housing, mother , father’s education, overcrowding,
employment, income & consistent results in
industrialized & non-industrialized countries
Inverse relation caries experience & SES – primary &
permanent teeth
175. 1. Childrearing
Physical care of the dependent young in order that
they may survive to adulthood.
Differs enormously from society to society, and from
time to time.
Depending upon factors such as capital resources,
level of knowledge, state of technology and system
of values.
176. 2. Socialization
The second responsibility of the family is to socialize the
"stream of new-born barbarians."
Refers to the process where by individuals develop
qualities essential for functioning effectively in the society
in which they live.
It is a latent function. By socialization is meant teaching
the young the values of society and transmitting
information, culture, beliefs, general codes of conduct.
177. 3. Personality formation
This is even a more latent function.
It is an area in which sociology comes closest to
psychology.
The family acts as a "placenta" excluding various
influences, modifying others that pass through it and
contributes some of its own.
178. 4. Care of dependent adults
(a) Care of the sick and injured
(b) Care of women during pregnancy and child birth
(c) Care of the aged and handicapped
179. 5. Stabilization of adult personality
The family is like a "shock absorber" to the stress
and strains of life.
The stress could be injury, illness, births, deaths,
tension, emotional upsets. worry, anxiety, economic
insecurity.
Certain chronic illnesses such as peptic ulcer, colitis,
high blood pressure, rheumatism, skin diseases are
accepted as "stress diseases" having a prominent
emotional element in their development.
180. 6. Familial susceptibility to disease
Members of a family share a pool of genes and a
common environment and together, these decide
their susceptibility to disease.
Haemophilia, colour blindness, diabetes and mental
illness are known to run through families.
Schizophrenia, psychoneurosis and some forms of
mental deficiency are also known to have a familial
incidence.
181. 7. Broken Family
Broken family is one where the parents have
separated, or where death has occurred of one or
both the parents.
“Mental deprivation" as one of the most dangerous
pathogenic factors.
Display in later years psychopathic behaviour,
immature personality, retardation of growth, speech
and intellect.
182. 8. Problem Families
Problem families are those which lag behind the rest
of the community.
In these families, the standards of life are generally
far below the accepted minimum.
Parents unable to meet the physical and emotional
needs of their children.
Park. Social sciences and health. In: Park. Social
& preventive medicine. 2005. 19th ed.506-518.
184. People, have their own beliefs and practices
concerning health and disease.
Widely recognised that cultural factors deeply
involved in all the affairs of man, including health and
sickness.
Not all customs and beliefs are bad.
Some of these cultural factors, hallowed by centuries
of practice, have stood in the way of implementing
health programmes.
185. 1. Concept of aetiology and cure
A. Supernatural:
1. Wrath of gods and godess
2. Breach of taboo
3. Past sins
4. Evil eye
B. Physical causes:
1. Effects of weather
2. Water
3. Impure blood Social sciences and health. Park. Social &
preventive medicine. 2005. 19th ed.
187. 3. Food Habits
The diet of the people is influenced by local
conditions (e.g., soil, climate) religious customs and
beliefs.
Vegetarianism is given a place of honour in Hindu
society.
Alcoholic drinks are tabooed by Muslims and high
-caste Hindus.
Ganja, bhang and charas are, frequently consumed
by sadhus.
188. 4. Mother and child health
1. Good
2. Bad
3. Unimportant
4. Uncertain
190. 6. Sex and Marriage
Mean marriage age: 24 –M, 19 – F
Monogamy
Polygamy
Polyandry – Todas of Nilgiri hills, Jaunsar Bawar in
UP, Nayars in Malbar coast.
Social sciences and health. Park. Social &
preventive medicine. 2005. 19th ed.
193. Alteration in shape of crown by filling or chipping.
Staining of teeth
Placement of gold crowns for adornment purpose
194. According to Waarusha and Masal people of
Tanzania practice removal of central incisor.
Space left provide the route allowing passage of fluid
in the event that the person is not able to open the
mouth.
195. Enucleation of unerupted deciduous teeth is confined
to certain regions of Africa considered as therapeutic
benefit upon children.
Blackening of teeth among Jivero Indian, people of
Peru and Ecuador- to prevent dental caries.
197. In India
Important people like Maharaja’s- inlayed with glass
or pearls.
Ancient Roman civilization- dental restorations of
gold.
Muslims- gold crown in front tooth signify wearer has
visited Mecca.
198. Tattoing
Popular practice in tropical and non-tropical areas of
world.
Tattooing done on
- Skin
- Lip
- Gingiva
- Teeth
199. Other forms of soft tissue mutilation
Piercing of lips and peri-oral soft tissues and
the insertion of materials such as wood, ivory
or metal.
200. Popular beliefs in India
No extractions- eye sight!
Patient demand dentists to show worms in decayed
teeth as they believe that dental decay is caused by
worms.
201. Exfoliated Deciduous teeth
• Under rock
• Throw on top of roof.
• Teeth in a rat hole.
202. Cultural practices like breast feeding and sugar
based substances extended up to 3-4 yrs- unusual
caries pattern.
Scaling- tooth becomes loose.
Child with neo-natal teeth- danger to grand parents.
203. Public health workers face difficulties in program
planning- because of long standing tradition and
misconceptions.
To overcome culture barriers- patient education.
Social scientist have been called to aid in adapting
new health programmes.
204. Conclusion
Medicine and social sciences – human behaviour.
Specialists seeking cooperation of social scientists.
Health cannot be isolated from its social context.
205. References
Park. Social sciences and health. In: Park. Social &
preventive medicine. 2005. 19th
ed.506-518.
Petersen PK. Society and oral health. In. Pine CM.
Community oral health. 1997.ed. Mumbai. Km Varghese
company. 20-37.
Kulkarni AP. Textbook of community Medicine. 2002. 2nd
ed. Mumbai. Vora medical publication. 28-35.
206. Bhaskar Rao. Textbook of community medicine.2004 1st
ed.
Paras medical publishers 29-71.
Gupta MC, Mahajan BK Textbook of preventive and social
medicine. 2003 3rd
ed. Jaypee medical publishers 109-120.
Burt. Dentistry, dental practice and community. 2005. 6th
ed.
207. Peter S. social sciences in dentistry. In: Peter S. Essentials
of preventive and community dentistry. ed. 2001. New
Delhi. Arya Publishing house. 733-741.
Locker D. Deprivation and oral health: a review. CDOE
2000; 28: 161-9.
Klinge B et al. A socioeconomic perspective on
periodontal disease.- a systematic review. J clin
periodontol 2005; 32(s6): 314-25.
208. Sathe PV and Sathe AP. Evolution of health care system
in India. In: Sathe PV and Sathe AP. Epidemiology and
management for health care for all. 2nd ed. Mumbai.
Popular prakashan. 2003. pp3-42.
Http://www.ucel.ac.uk/shield/docs/notes_black.doc
209. S.C. Tiwari, Aditya Kumar & Ambrish Kumar. Development and
Standardization of a scale to measure socio economic status in
urban and rural communities in India. Indian J Med Res 122,
October2005, pp309- 314.
Prabhu, Wilson, Daftrary & Johnson. Oral Diseases in the
Tropics. 1993 ed. Delhi. Oxford university press.
www. laynetworks.com
National fluoride mapping by DCI 2002-2003
in relation to health and disease. social environment on health is, in different societies. Many important , which is also related to the socioeconomic enviornment.
Examples of such problems are obesity, coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, sexually transmitted disease, AIDS, psychiatric disorders, suicides, accidents, alcoholism, drug abuse and delinquency. .
This is dramatically reflected in
the comment of Naina, wife of Boris Yeltsin, Prime
In USA, in spite of the most sophisticated advances in
medicine,
influencing the health of the individual and the community. more appropriate to use the term This environment is unique to man and,
, In view of the multiple nature of factors involved, it may be more appropriate to use the term psycho-socioeconomic environment.
IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
desired.Similarly,health programmes relating to mother and
childhealth care services, improvement of water supplies, theme common to community health and social sciences is behavior.
installationof sanitary latrines, improvement of dietary
patternsand infant rearing practices have all proved abortive
oronlypartially successful. are working on problems of Although,there is a wide range of prophylactic vaccines, immunization has not gained universal acceptance. The family planning programme in India is a recent example of a health serviceof which people are not making use to the extent desired , A case in point is immunization against communicable diseases.
It is the
As a separate discipline,
meaning
The unit of study can be a small group (e.g. family), or the study can extend beyond the family.
Functionalism or Consensus Theory: It emphasizes the contributions (functions) that each part of a society makes to it. It focuses on social integration, stability, order and co-operation. Accordingly, the parts of society are organized into an integrated whole. Consequently, a change in one part of society (eg., the economy) leads to changes in other parts (eg., the family). Consensus theory assumes that most members of a society have a consensus on values and interests.
Conflict Theory: It emphasizes competition, change and constraint within a society conflicts may exist for eg., between living condition of people, the structure of health care system and the standard of health of people. Thus, conflict theorists focus on the inheritable disagreements among people in groups, and individuals and groups compete (conflicts) with one another to preserve and promote their own special values and interest.
Interactionism: Interactionists are concerned with how people interpret the social situations they are participating in. both consensus and conflict theory deal with large social units and broad social processes, whereas interactionists attempts to understand social life from viewpoint of individual. Accordingly, groups can only exists because their members influence one another’s behavior.
Peter S. social sciences in dentistry. In: Peter S. Essentials of preventive and community dentistry. 3rd ed. 2006. New Delhi. Arya Publishing house. 733-741.
Social institution is a, Institutions may be economical, political, educational, religious and recreational in nature.
It is defined as. The, (like occupational, educational, etc.), common life. The hallmark of a community is that one's
life may be wholly lived within it. One cannot live awhole
life within a club or a business group. However, one can
live wholly within a tribe or a village or city.
We have already said that social standards which guide man. The resultant of these
two forces is the actual behaviour, which we perform in
society. A newly born child is equivalent to an animal.
People conform to these ways not out of fear of being penalised but becauseit is
While each folkway is not considered tremendously important and is not supported by an extremely strong sanction,
respectively and from marrying outside one's own ethnic, caste or religious group.
through specific machinery created by society for this purpose.
Practises that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in the past.
On the other hand,
Like social norms, Values refer to those their philosophical facet is the value.. For example, it is a
lIorlll that no man should be differentiated in terms of
sex, caste, colour or creed while practising the art of
medicine. The value behind it is that "all men are born
free and equal."
Besides these, there are
there is no mobility or shifting from one class to another, and the members remain throughout life time wherein they are born. For example, a carpenter repairs tools, a barber (nai) cuts hair, a potter
The mob is more emotional than a crowd.
There may be a symbol in the shape of a flag or slogan. When the interest is over, the crowd disperses.
Like the crowd, it
From a sociological point of view, a city or town may be defined as a Because of their size, primary contact among all its inhabitants is difficult. When the Population exceeds 100,000 it is called a city; on this basis,
The State is an
It is in other words,
Based on quantitative and qualitative dimensions
Persons involved have, There is a
Doctor patient relationship has, The relationship is thus, based on specific role (rather than diffuse role). There is an over reliance on diagnostic tests rather than clinical diagnosis. The stress is on affective neutrality (rather than affectivity). The relationship tends to be dependent on the financial status of the patient and is thus universalistic (rather than particularistic). Lastly, the relationship is not goal oriented but is self-oriented.
In fact
According this theory, This theory explains formation of small groups only
Newcomb’s Theory :- This theory was putforth by Theodore Newcomb. According to him people forming group perceive some commonness of religion, political ideology, life-style, occupation etc. This commonness is also in respect of objective and goals. This leads to interaction for group.
According to this theory group formation is a process which, It is the in reverse situation it is negative. If reward out of an interaction is likely to reach comparison level only then interaction continues for reasonable period for group formation.
, If the reward is higher than the cost the outcome is said to be positive, Thus according to this theory if reward out of an interaction is likely to reach comparison level only then interaction continues for reasonable period for group formation.
The family therefore has engaged the attention of sociologists, anthropologists, demographers, epidemiologists, medical scientists, and in fact all those who are concerned with family welfare.
and consists of parents and children. The concept is important in view of studies relating to family planning (20). has come recently into use
The Joint or extended family is a, As a price for education, urbanisation and industrialisation, we are losing the joint family system,
Characteristics of joint family are
Occurs usually when
distinguishes three types of functions.
These are activities of
When we think of society we think more of organization, but when we think of community we think of life. Community exists within society and possesses its distinguishable structure, which distinguishes it from other communities. Society is abstract. Society is network of social relationships which can not be seen or touched.
Three basic approaches have been devloped for the identification of social classes at community and society level.
Imperfect measuring tools
Rup Nagpal’s scale
Substitute.
SUMMARIZED
ON HEALTH OF PATIENTS.
Social Psychology, draws two behavioural sciences, Subject can be studied from 2 perspectives as the name suggests, From this point of view, From this perspective, Social psychology is, Social psychology is
HB CAN BE DIVIDED IN 3 COMPONENTS.
INVOLVES MOVEMENT OF MUSCLES, INTERNAL- THINKING
of an individual Biolo needs food, water. Psycho needs – affections, recognition, status in society.
It implies certain, psycho, it is important to bear in mind that perso of
Some we cultivate, some we conceal, some we modify.
Personality traits we luk in doctor are
Concept of pleasure – Principles of reinforcement. Assesment of personality. Personality ninventory, minneosta multiphasic
Concept of ego – Concept of learned drives and skills.
Conflict – Competing reinforcers.
In d society.usually All type of learning , motor, 4th one verbal learning. ALL.
An individual with achievement motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here, accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany
An individual with achievement motivation, Persons with affiliation motivation perform ,IT IS THE.
It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the past.
It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder.
e.g. But if anger is aroused as a result of some cruelty to child, can be a in the mind of doctor, it can be helpful in
Derived from 2 root words, anthropos meaning man and logos meaning science.
A norm can be defined as most frequent behavior that the members of a group show in a given situation.
We can also say that
WHEN THERE IS,The British brought their culture into India through conquest. Spread of ciggarete smoking.
One of the
by example and precept, in order to make them fit for membership in the wider society of which the family is a part. Organisations such as schools and religious
in laying the foundation of physical, mental and social health of the child. .
These diseases are known to spread rapidly in Families because of the common environment which the family members share.
Playground communicable diseases as tuberculosis, common cold, scabies, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, chicken -pox, dysentery, diarrhoea, and enteric fever.
whether rural or urban, lt is nowSome are based on centuries of trial and error and have positive values, while ALL, others may be useless or positively harmful.
,
Broadly, the causes of disease, as understood by the
majority of rural people, fall into two groups: (a) supernatural
and (b) physical.
Even among vegetarians,the pattern of eating is not the same.
these habits are now spreading into the younger
including Nigeria and Tanzania
Teeth as strong
as stone,
Teeth as strong and
sharp as rat teeth