078 Motivational Theories

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MOTIVATIONALMOTIVATIONAL
THEORIESTHEORIES

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION
(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)
• Mullins (1996) defined motivation as an
internal driving force within the
individual in which they ultimately are
attempting to achieve their goad or
some expectation and fulfil some
needs.
• From this concept the basic
motivational model is illustrated.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATIONBASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION
(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATIONBASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION
(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)(NEEDS AND EXPECTATION)
• Mullins asks what are people’s needs and
expectations.
• What are the driving forces and how do they
influence someone’s performance or
behaviour.
• Motivation is complex and can be a very
personal business.
• People have different needs and
expectations and they try to satisfy in a
number of different ways.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDSBASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS
AND EXPECTATION)AND EXPECTATION)
• Therefore, at a basic level, the concept of
motivation is closely linked to physiological
need.
• However, since human behaviour is more
complex than just striving to meet
physiological need, such a model of
motivation is oversimplified.

BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDSBASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION (NEEDS
AND EXPECTATION)AND EXPECTATION)

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESMOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
• Needs or expectation are fundamental requirements
for one survival and wellbeing.
• Needs are either physical or physiological.
• Needs influence values and values are a concept
that a person thinks is good to have.
• Value has influence on jobs and goals, leads to
action or specific plans which one has disbelief that
his goals will lead to the fulfilment of his needs (The
Open University - The Business School, 1995).

Figure below shows the relationship between Needs,
Value, Goals and Action.

ECONOMIC NEEDS, MOTIVATION AND THE
CONCEPT OF ECONOMIC MAN
• Frederick Taylor, an American engineer, was
one of the first researchers in industrial
psychology to apply scientific method to study
the workforce.
• In 1880 he introduced scientific management
technique to ensure workforce activity during
the working hours and consequently tried to
improve efficiency.

• Until then, no one tried to measure the
efficiency of workers and there was no
scale by which to measure such efficiency.
• During this period, the traditional approach
to motivation was based on a fundamental
philosophy that, the best way to motivate
workers was by giving them financial
rewards to improve performance or by
penalties.
• These rewards or incentives were in the
form of promotion, shorter working hours,
or higher salaries.

• The view of rational economic man
has its roots on the economic theory of
Adam Smith from the 1770's.
• The theory suggests that people are
primarily motivated by self interest and
by gaining more and more financial
rewards (Cole, 1993:page 95).

• Taylor lay down techniques for design and
management of work and how the workers
should be paid.
• Taylor believed the outcome of scientific
management would be an increase in
efficiency and a firm would profit from this.
• This underlying benefit and assumption
would allow the firm to pay more then
average wages to the workforce.

• Taylor describes scientific management as a
science with many rules, laws and formulas.
• This, therefore, replaces the judgement of
individual workers.
• The work of any worker is planned in
advance, and is accompanied with complete
work instruction.
• The task is well described.
• It enables the workers to carry out work in a
given pace.

• F W Taylor believed in economic need
motivation.
• Workers are motivated if they are paid higher
wages, by working efficiently and in the best
productive way.
• Taylor looked at factors that motivated
workers and believed motivation was a
comparatively simple issue.
• In his view, what workers wanted more than
anything was high wages (Mullins, 1996:page
485).

SOCIAL CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION-FROM
ECONOMICAL MAN TO SOCIAL MAN
• In any organisation, managers and their
subordinates pursue organisational goals, such
as efficiency, only because as a result of this
their personal intrinsic gain will improve.
• There are other benefits such as financial
compensation and other benefits
• There have been many articles, concepts of
Taylor’s theory about scientific management.

• Taylor’s theory looks at a single factor
taking no account of other influences and
behaviour, or of variants between people
and situations.
• His views towards workers are simplistic
and generalised.
• He did not consider that the average man
may also get satisfaction from his job,
from working with his team workers
(Gower & Rushbrook, 1983:page 27).

• Other human relations writers demonstrated that
people go to work to satisfy a variety of needs, that
they do not work only for economical means.
• They emphasised the importance of social needs
rather than economical needs.
• Hawthorne demonstrated in his experiment that
people do not only work for money (Mullins, 1996:
p485).
• The human relation approach and management
brought about the concept of economic man to
social man.

EARLY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIESEARLY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
• All managers have a duty to motivate the workforce.
• Motivated people work better and take more pride in
their jobs.
• Motivating people at work is a complex business.
• There is not a single factor that can be isolated to
show what motivates people at work.
• Different theories have been developed to help
management to understand that there are many
motives that influence worker’s behaviour and
performance.

• These theories provide a framework for
management to pay attention to the problems
associated with encouraging workers to work
willingly and effectively.
• However, one must say that these theories
are not conclusive, they have their critics.
• New ideas bring new theories that may
contradict the original ideas.
• It is not difficult to bring a case that may
contradict any generalised observation on
how people are motivated at work.

• Scientific Management and work of F.W
Taylor
• The Hawthorn experiment & Human Relation
Experiment
• Development of many competing theories on
the Nature of work motivation
• Content theory
• Process theory

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivational theories are divided into two
main groups:
• Content theories
• Process theories
• Some of the most well known content
theories that have been put forward over
the last forty years are by Maslow,
Alderfer, Herzberg, and McGregors.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
• Maslow’s concept of hierarchy of need is shown in
figure below

• Physiological needs – these are man’s physical
needs for food, shelter, warmth, sexual needs and
other functions related to the human body.
• Safety needs – the need to feel safe from physical
danger and the need to maintain personal safety,
whether it is physical, emotional or physiological.
• Social or affiliation needs – the need for love, the
need to feel part of a group or organisation, sense
of belonging, the need to give and receive love.

• Esteem needs (Ego needs) – this is either
self esteem such as self acceptance, the
need to respect ourselves, to feel confidence,
to feel independent, free, and have a sense
of achievement.
• Self-actualisation – this is the need for self-
development, which is to develop the gifts or
potentials one has to the full.

• The psychologist Frederick Herzberg first proposed
the motivation-hygiene theory in 1959.
• Herzberg's motivation-hygiene or duel factor theory
or two-factor theory came about because in his view
the individuals relation to his or her workplace is a
basic one.
• Whatever his or her attitude is in relation to the
workplace will strongly determine whether an
individual becomes successful or fails in his job.
• As a result Herzberg carried out a survey to prove
his theory

• By removing the dis-satisfiers from the work
environment does not necessarily make a job
satisfying.
• His survey indicated the existence of a dual
continuum.
• Herzberg called characteristics such as company
policy, administration, supervision, working
conditions and security, hygiene factors.
• If a company lacks hygiene factors the workforce
will not be dissatisfied or satisfied.
• To increase motivation in a work environment
Herzberg suggested emphasis should be placed on
factors such as recognition, achievement or growth.

• Those answers which were determinants of job
satisfaction were as follows,
• advancement,
• recognition,
• responsibility,
• work itself
The dis-satisfiers were:
• company policy and administration,
• supervision,
• salary, interpersonal relations,
• working conditions, (Cowling et al 1993).

• Herzberg concluded that the opposite to
‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’, and the
opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no
dissatisfaction’, therefore suggesting that
factors leading to job satisfaction are distinct
from factors leading to job dissatisfaction.

• By removing the dis-satisfiers from the work
environment does not necessarily make a job
satisfying.
• His survey indicated the existence of a dual
continuum.
• Herzberg called characteristics such as
company policy, administration, supervision,
working conditions and security, hygiene
factors.

• If a company lacks hygiene factors the
workforce will not be dissatisfied or
satisfied.
• To increase motivation in a work
environment Herzberg suggested
emphasis should be placed on factors
such as recognition, achievement or
growth.

ERG THEORY
• Professor Clayton Alderfer of Yale University carried
out empirical tests on need hierarchy.
• His need theory was similar to Maslows but from his
test results he identified three groups of need rather
than five groups of need which Maslow suggested
earlier.
The three categories of need are:
• Existence need – which are concerned with human
existence and survival. These survival needs
include reproduction, physiological and safety needs
of a material nature.

• Relatedness needs – concerned with our
social needs and the need to be loved and
respected. It also covers affiliation and
meaningful interpersonal relationships of a
safety or esteem nature.
• Growth needs – concerned with needs for
personal growth. They cover self-esteem
and

Alderfer makes three important points:
• The less someone’s needs are satisfied in
the workplace, the more it becomes
important to that person.
• The more a lower level need is satisfied the
more important the next higher level need
becomes.
• The less a higher level need is satisfied the
more important the lower level need
becomes.

Figure below shows Satisfaction-progression, frustration-Figure below shows Satisfaction-progression, frustration-
regression components of ERG theoryregression components of ERG theory

Table below shows comparison of Maslow and ERGTable below shows comparison of Maslow and ERG
concepts.concepts.

PROCESS THEORY OF MOTIVATION
• Process theory of motivation or theories of
behaviour choice are equity theory,
expectancy theory, conditioning and goal
setting theories.
• Process theories try to identify the
relationship between variables, which
together make up the motivation process
amongst people working in an organisation.

• It is not easy to link a particular process
theory to a single researcher but the main
writers and their major works are:
• Equity theory – Adams.
• Expectancy theory – base models – Vroom,
Porter and Lawler.
• Goal setting theory – Locke.
• Attribution theory – Heider, Kelley.

EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
• Equity theory or social comparison
theory, suggests that workers compare
themselves with others doing the same
job in the same circumstances and judge
the situation to see if they have been
treated fairly (Cole, 1993:p95).

EXPECTANCY THEORY
• The origin of Expectancy theory goes
back to Talman and Lewin in the 1930’s.
• Vroom (1964) is possibly one of the most
prominent and influential of all
researchers to formulate the
expectancy/valance theory.
• He described human motivation as being
determined by two variables

• The concept of balance relates to the order of
performance one may have between a high
salary and a prestigious job. Therefore, the
attractiveness of outcome plays a major role.
• The concept of expectancy relates to an
individual’s feeling and the likelihood of
one’s action will lead to a certain outcome or
goal.
• According to Vroom motivation is the result
of the combination of expectancy and
valance.

• In order to experience motivation the value
of expectancy and valance must be
greater than zero.
• Vroom also argued that the combination
of expectancy and valance might change if
a worker may predict a number of
outcomes from his actions.

078 Motivational Theories

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