2. ii
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures............................................................................................................................. vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. vii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations........................................................................................viii
Glossary ...................................................................................................................................... ix
Abstract....................................................................................................................................... xi
Statement of Authentication .....................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1 – Introduction........................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and Significance ................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 National Rugby League .................................................................................................. 2
1.1.2 Sport Management Literature ......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Issues for Rugby League Clubs ............................................................................................. 4
1.3 Research Objectives and Questions....................................................................................... 4
1.4 Methodology.......................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Thesis Structure ..................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2 – Literature Review: Exploring the Nature of Sport Identities .......................... 9
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Motivation behind Sport Consumption................................................................................ 10
2.3 Sport Identities..................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Theories in Sport Management............................................................................................ 14
2.4.1 Functionalist Theory..................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Conflict Theory............................................................................................................. 15
2.4.3 Critical Theory.............................................................................................................. 16
2.4.4 Feminist Theory............................................................................................................ 16
2.4.5 Interactionist Theory..................................................................................................... 17
2.5 Theoretical Approach........................................................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Symbolic Interactionism............................................................................................... 18
3. iii
2.6 Theoretical Application ....................................................................................................... 20
2.7 Experiential Products........................................................................................................... 23
2.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 3 – Research Design and Methodology................................................................... 25
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Research Design................................................................................................................... 25
3.2.1 Applying the Research Design...................................................................................... 26
3.2.1.1 Scales used in Sport Management ......................................................................... 27
3.2.1.2 The Online Survey................................................................................................. 30
3.2.1.3 The Semi- Structured Interviews ........................................................................... 32
3.2.1.4 Sport Management and Mixed Approaches........................................................... 32
3.2.2 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 33
3.2.2.1 Completing the Online Survey............................................................................... 33
3.2.2.2 Conducting the Semi-Structured Interviews.......................................................... 35
3.3 Anticipated Obstacles .......................................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Low Response Rate to the Online Survey .................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Low Response Rate to Participate in the Interviews .................................................... 37
3.4 Encountered Obstacles......................................................................................................... 38
3.4.1 Late Ethics Approval .................................................................................................... 38
3.4.2 Online Survey Launch .................................................................................................. 38
3.4.3 Availability of Participants ........................................................................................... 39
3.5 Methods of Analysis ............................................................................................................ 40
3.5.1 The Online Quantitative Data ....................................................................................... 40
3.5.2 The Qualitative Interview Data..................................................................................... 41
3.5.3 Rigour of Research ....................................................................................................... 42
3.6 Research Ethics.................................................................................................................... 43
3.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 4 – Presentation of Quantitative and Qualitative Data......................................... 45
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 45
4.2 Online Survey Results.......................................................................................................... 46
4. iv
4.3 Themes that Influence Team Support.................................................................................. 49
4.3.1 Family or Parent Influences.......................................................................................... 52
4.3.2 Influences of Friends..................................................................................................... 53
4.3.3 New Team..................................................................................................................... 55
4.3.4 Jersey Design ................................................................................................................ 56
4.3.5 Good Players................................................................................................................. 56
4.3.6 Talent of the Team........................................................................................................ 57
4.3.7 Behaviour of Players (Off-Field).................................................................................. 58
4.3.8 Young Team/Club......................................................................................................... 59
4.3.9 Geographical Location of Team ................................................................................... 59
4.3.10 Travelling to Games.................................................................................................... 60
4.3.11 Team Wins/Losses...................................................................................................... 61
4.3.12 Consistent On-Field Results ....................................................................................... 62
4.3.13 Loyalty to the Team.................................................................................................... 62
4.3.14 Team Affiliation.......................................................................................................... 63
4.3.15 Supporting Other NRL Teams.................................................................................... 64
4.3.16 Supporting Other Teams in Other Sports.................................................................... 65
4.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 66
Chapter 5 – Discussion and Conclusion................................................................................. 67
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 67
5.2 Meeting the Objectives ........................................................................................................ 67
5.2.1 Objective One: Examining Sport Identities.................................................................. 68
5.2.2 Objective Two: Discovering Support Motivations....................................................... 70
5.2.3 Objective Three: Factors Producing Identity Transitions............................................. 70
5.3 Assessment of the Conceptual Framework.......................................................................... 71
5.4 Recommendations to the NRL club..................................................................................... 74
5.5 Contribution of the Research to Current Literature ............................................................. 75
5.8 Limitations........................................................................................................................... 77
5.9 Further Research .................................................................................................................. 77
5.10 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 78
References................................................................................................................................. 80
5. v
Appendices................................................................................................................................ 84
Appendix A: Online Survey Email to Storm Supporters........................................................... 84
Appendix B: Online Participant Information Sheet................................................................... 85
Appendix C: Online Survey....................................................................................................... 87
Appendix D: Interview Guideline.............................................................................................. 93
Appendix E: Paper-Based Version of Online Survey................................................................ 95
Appendix F: Information Sheet for Interviews.......................................................................... 98
Appendix G: Interview Consent Form..................................................................................... 100
Appendix H: Recruitment Poster............................................................................................. 101
6. vi
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Spectator-Fan-Member Cycle.…………………………………………………….13
Figure 2.2: Model of Symbolic Consumption in Sport..………………………………………21
Figure 5.1: Model of Symbolic Consumption in Sport..………………………………………71
7. vii
List of Tables
Table 1.1: List of NRL clubs and State Locations…………….………………………………...2
Table 1.2: Objectives of the Research and Research Questions………………………………...5
Table 4.1: Demographic information from online survey……………………………………..46
Table 4.2: Demographic statistics……………………………………………………………...47
Table 4.3: Analysis of variances between die-hard fans and fair-weather fans………………..48
Table 4.4: Matrix of Established Themes from Semi-Structured Interviews………………….51
Table 5.1: Objectives of the Research and Questions………………………………………….68
8. viii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
ANOVA: Analysis of Variances
AFL: Australian Football League
GFI: Goodness of the fit
MANOVA: Multiple analyses of variances
MSC: Motivations of the Sport Consumer
MSSC: Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption
NHMRC: National Health and Medical Research Committee
NRL: National Rugby League
SII: Sport Interest Inventory
SFMS: Sport Fan Motivation Scale
SPEED: Social Interaction, Performance, Esteem, Excitement and Diversion
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SSIS: Sports Spectator Identification Scale
9. ix
Glossary
Sport: Institutionalised competitive activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use
of relatively complex physical skills by participants, motivated by internal and external
rewards (Coakley, 2001).
Marketing: The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and
distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and
organizational goals (Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004).
Motivation: Internal and external forces and influences that drive an individual to participate
or consume sport. The common sport motivators include group affiliation, family, aesthetic,
self-esteem, economic, eustress, escape and entertainment (Wann, Melnick, Russell & Pease,
2001).
Self concept: Consisting of various identities, it is the manner in which an individual perceives
themselves and wants to be perceived by others (Armstrong, 2007).
Sport Identity: The degree of importance, strength and exclusivity an individual attaches to
their role as a supporter, which is maintained by the individual and influenced by the
environment (Cieslak, 2004).
Sport Spectator: An individual who witnesses sporting events in person or through various
forms of media (Wann et al, 2001).
Direct Consumption: Individuals who have a physical presence at a sporting event (Wann et
al, 2001).
Indirect consumption: Individuals who are exposed to sporting events through some form of
media (Wann et al, 2001).
Sport Fan: An individual who follows all aspects of a sport, team and/or athlete on a day-to-
day basis (Wann et al, 2001).
10. x
Die-Hard Fan: A person with a high level of sport identification, where the role of being a
supporter is a central component of that person’s self-concept (Wann et al, 2001).
Fair-Weather Fan: A person with a low level of sport identification, where the role of a
supporter is a marginal component of that person’s self-concept (Wann et al, 2001).
11. xi
Abstract
This study focused on rugby league supporters and their sport identities, which can encompass
spectators, fans or members. The research, which used the theory of symbolic interactionism,
was conducted on a National Rugby League club’s supporter base. In association with
symbolic interactionism, it is assumed that products, and in this case experiences from NRL
matches, can have an affect on sport identity. Consisting of three objectives, the study aimed to
examine the sport identity, whether spectator, fan or member, of the supporters, to discover
what motivated them and then to identify the factors that promoted or produced a transition
between the sport identities; for example from spectator to fan and ultimately a member.
The research used convenient and snowball sampling methods to collect data through surveys
and semi-structured interviews. The convenient sampling collected quantitative data from
volunteer participants (n=112) using a Sports Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS) (Wann &
Branscombe, 1993) and the Social Interaction, Performance, Esteem, Excitement and
Diversion (SPEED) survey (Beaton, Filo and Funk, 2007). These measured supporters' sport
identity and motives.
Snowball sampling was used to recruit additional volunteer participants, (n=10), to gain in-
depth knowledge about their sport identities and motives for supporting the rugby league club.
The qualitative interviews involved nine open-ended questions, derived from Coakley (2001),
in order to discover the transition between sport identities of the participants.
Some 65-males (58.0%) and 47-females (42.0%) participated in the quantitative study. An
analysis of variances and an analysis of average per item from the SPEED scale showed that
excitement (7.34 +/- 0.94), esteem (6.84 +/- 1.33) and performance (5.38 +/- 1.71) were the
main motivations for supporting the NRL club and for attending matches.
Using inductive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts, the 10 participants from the
semi-structured interviews identified multiple themes that contributed to their support for the
NRL club, including family and social influences, geographical locations and the behaviour of
players.
12. xii
The results drew attention to the classification of NRL matches as experiential products, where
the experience an individual has at the game can affect their level of involvement with the club
and repeat match attendance. In conjunction with the model of symbolic conjunction, by
having a symbolic product and symbolic experience, in the form of NRL matches, this can
contribute to and influence sport identity transitions. Such findings can be useful to sport clubs
and marketers who seek to increase club membership and member participation in their clubs.
13. xiii
Statement of Authentication
The following thesis, to the best of the candidate’s knowledge and belief, contains no material
which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, and contains no
material previously published or written by another person, except when due reference is made
in the text of the thesis.
Author Name: Mr Daniel Sutic
Date: 15/12/2008
Signature:
14. xiv
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my primary supervisor, Wayne Fallon, for his support, lasting patience
and enthusiasm, my secondary supervisor, Dr. Gregory Teal, for his calmness and helpful
advice, and Dr. Thomas Cieslak, for his contribution in the formative stages of the work and
his endless guidance and comments on sport management.
I would also like to thank the participating rugby league club for agreeing to participate in this
study. Growing up supporting the club and being a fanatic, it was a dream come true to work
with the organisation as it was the possibility of working with the club that made me consider
to apply for the Honours course.
Special thanks must go to another club, which was originally going to be involved in the study.
However, the opportunity fell short as the research approach changed.
To Branko, thank you for your constant encouragement along the way. To Suzanne, Dora and
Rebecca, thank you very much for supporting me and believing in me through this journey.
I am very grateful to have had the experiences and help from all individuals involved, who in
turn helped me make the study as successful as it could be.
15. 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1 Background and Significance
Sport consumption by individuals and societies dates back to ancient Greece (Trail & James,
2001). Examining what motivates individuals, in regards to sport consumption, is of great
interest to sport managers and marketers. Being able to identify an individual’s motives behind
their exhibited behaviours and the formation of their sport identity is valuable information
(Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, & Gladden, 2002). Possessing this type of information can
aid sports managers and marketers to develop management and marketing strategies that can
aid in the success of their sporting organisations (Won & Kitamura, 2007), through better
member recruitment and marketing.
There is a wealth of information in the scholarly literature with regard to sport identities,
specifically spectators and fans (Funk & James, 2004; Shank & Beasly, 1998; Wann &
Branscombe, 1993; Wann et al, 2001). This literature has been the base of various studies
conducted by a vast array of sport management theorists as to what attributes, behaviours and
motives are exhibited by the spectator and fan identities (Funk & James, 2004; Shank &
Beasly, 1998; Wann & Branscombe, 1993; Wann et al, 2001).
However, there appears to be a gap in sport management literature about sport identities, as no
literature can be found that attempts to determine what attributes, behaviours and motives
constitute the sport identity of a club member. Also, the literature does not currently enable an
understanding of the transitions of sport identities from spectator to fan to member, and reasons
for these transitions.
A National Rugby League (NRL) club was approached to participate in the research by
allowing its supporters to be participants. Rugby league was chosen for the research because
the sport is popular in New South Wales, and there had been attempts to establish a more
dominant national presence, in relation to other football codes such as the Australian Football
League.
16. 2
1.1.1 National Rugby League
The National Rugby League (NRL) was formed in 1998 when the Super League and the
Australian Rugby League joined and created a unified competition (Fickling, 2003). The
rivalry between the two competitions had seen sponsorship spread thinly and crowd
attendances decline (Fickling, 2003). Since the unification and creation of the NRL, the
competition has expanded into New Zealand and Victoria, to complement the strong presence
in New South Wales and Queensland. All 16 clubs in the NRL competition are listed in Table
1.1, with the state location of their home ground.
Table 1.1: List of NRL clubs and locations
NRL Club State Location
Brisbane Broncos Queensland
Canberra Raiders Australian Capital Territory
Canterbury Bulldogs New South Wales
Cronulla Sharks New South Wales
Gold Coast Titans Queensland
Manly Sea Eagles New South Wales
Melbourne Storm Victoria
Newcastle Knights New South Wales
New Zealand Warriors Auckland, New Zealand
North Queensland Cowboys Queensland
Parramatta Eels New South Wales
Penrith Panthers New South Wales
South Sydney Rabbitohs New South Wales
St. George/Illawarra Dragons New South Wales
Sydney Roosters New South Wales
Wests Tigers New South Wales
Each team in the NRL competition plays 12 home games and the same number of away games
in the season. With the geographic parameters of the “national” competition, covering New
South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and even extending to New Zealand, the away games
played by any team can be scattered from along the eastern seaboard of Australia to across the
Tasman seas. In addition to this, occasional “exhibition” matches that form part of the
competition are played in South Australia and Western Australia, to provide some exposure for
rugby league in these states (Chadwick, 2008).
17. 3
In addition, the NRL has expressed interest in expanding the game even further, with the
possibility of adding teams in West Brisbane (Malone, 2008), Papua New Guinea (Alston,
2008), Wellington (Ritchie, 2008), Adelaide (Read, 2008), the Central Coast (Ritchie, 2008),
the Sunshine Coast (Ritchie, 2008) and Fiji (Singh, 2008).
Despite these moves to expand the game, the NRL has had to deal with pressures off-filed
where some players have exhibited anti-social behaviour. Such behaviours include drink
driving (Rehn, 2007), sexual assaults (Lawrence & Ritchie, 2007), violence towards women
(Clifton, 2007) and drug and alcohol abuse (Ritchie, 2007).
With low crowd attendances, it has been suggested that New South Wales is a saturated
market, thus requiring an examination of the membership base of clubs (Mascord, 2008). In
these circumstances, finding out what motivates supporters of NRL clubs to consume the sport
could contribute to the development of strategies to increase higher membership numbers and
crowd attendances.
1.1.2 Sport Management Literature
Past studies have examined the attributes associated with individuals who consume sport.
Wann, Melnick, Russell, and Pease (2001) identified various levels of sport consumption,
including such activities as attending matches and purchasing merchandise, relating to sport
identities.
It has been assumed that an individual’s sport identity influences how sport is consumed
(Wann, et al 2001). Spectators, who can consume sport directly or indirectly, and fans, either
fair-weather or die-hard fans, are the sport identities that have been discussed throughout sport
management literature.
For the NRL however, what motivates sport identities to consume its product, being matches,
is what needs to be understood. Various scales have been developed that aim to discover what
motivates individuals to consume sport. Beaton, Filo and Funk's (2007) Social Interaction,
Performance, Esteem, Excitement and Diversion (SPEED) scale has been developed to assist
in understanding motivation, and this scale was used in this study.
18. 4
In an attempt to identify motivations for sport consumption, Armstrong (2007) used symbolic
interactionism to uncover what influenced repeat attendances at minor league ice hocky games.
The model of symbolic consumption developed by Mowen (1995) and used by Armstrong
(2007), has been adapted and used in this study as the conceptual framework, in order to
identify how the symbolic process of sport consumption can alter an individual’s sport identity.
By using this conceptual framework and the SPEED scale (Beaton et al, 2007) to identify what
motivates supporters of NRL clubs, recommendations can be made to increase crowd
attendance and membership in the NRL. Knowing the motivations of each sport identity can be
useful for targeting new members and can assist to develop specific campaigns to increase
membership bases.
1.2 Issues for Rugby League Clubs
In 2008, Rugby League celebrated its centenary in Australia. That year, the NRL launched a
club membership drive with some clubs noting that it is the members who are the principal
sponsors of clubs and that, without them, clubs would not be successful.
Low game attendance and bad off-field behaviour of players have affected revenue for clubs.
Reflecting upon these issues, the study has been developed to identify the motives of
spectators, fans and members, in order to address the main reasons why individuals attend
matches and support their team, and also to determine which factors are influential in sport
identity transitions, for example, from being a fan and then transitioning to becoming a
member.
1.3 Research Objectives and Questions
Objectives for the study were designed to understand what motivates supporters of the NRL.
The first objective was to examine the sport identities of the NRL club supporters. The second
sought to understand what motivated these supporters to follow their team and attend matches.
The third objective was to identify the factors that influence individuals to support the NRL
club and that could also promote sport identity transitions. These three objectives, along with
the corresponding research questions, are presented in Table 1.2 below.
19. 5
Table 1.2: Objectives of the Research and Research Questions
OBJECTIVES RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Examine the sport identity (i.e.,
spectator, fan and member) of
supporters that follow the NRL
club.
Are the majority of people attending the
match sport fans with significantly less
members and spectators in
attendance?
2. Discover what motivates
supporters (i.e., Social Interaction,
Performance, Esteem, Excitement,
Diversion)
Is there a significant difference in what
motivates a fan compared to the
member and spectator?
3. Identify the factors which
promote and produce a transition
between the sport identities (i.e.
from being a spectator to being a
fan becoming a member).
Are there significant factors that
influence both positive and negative
changes in how supporters identify
themselves (i.e., spectators, fans or
members)?
1.4 Methodology
The first and second objectives were addressed with the use of both the Sport Spectator
Identification Scale (SSIS) and the SPEED scale. These scales were used in an online survey
and sent out to members of the NRL club, via the club’s email database. Participants who
received these emails were then encouraged to pass on the online survey to others who could
be either members or non-members of the club. Along with the survey, each participant was
given an information sheet outlining the scope of the study.
In order to achieve the first objective, the SSIS (Wann et al, 2001) was used in order to classify
participants as spectators, fair-weather fans or die-hard fans. Participants with SSIS scores of
40 – 56 were classified as die-hard fans, while scores of 18 – 39 were classified as fair-weather
fans and those with scores of 0 – 17 were classified as spectators. Once the classifications of
sport identities was completed, descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages,
were calculated to compare the independent variable, being identification classification, with
the dependent variables, such as home match attendance, away match attendance and member
registration.
20. 6
The respondents included 65 males (58.0%) and 47 females (42.0%). The majority of
supporters were registered members (n=88; 78.6%) and classified themselves as die-hard fans
(n=94; 83.9%). The results from the demographics and SSIS indicated that 1 out of 4 die-hard
fans (n=25) attended 6 or less home matches, with 1 out of 3 die-hard fans (n=30) attended at
least 1 or 2 away matches.
To fulfil the second research objective, an analysis of variances (ANOVAs) was calculated.
For this study, scores of the SSIS were again divided into 3 groups. Descriptive statistics,
including means and standard deviations and ANOVAs were calculated to compare the
independent variables with the dependent variables of the SPEED scale, being the motives
social interaction, performance, entertainment, esteem and diversion (Beaton et al, 2007).
The results indicated there were no significant differences between male and female supporters
in their level of sport identification, being die-hard fan and fair-weather fan, nor in their
motives, including social interaction, performance, entertainment, esteem and diversion. Based
on this finding, the analysis of variances focused on the differences between die-hard fans and
fair-weather fans only as it related to their motives. No participant registered as a spectator on
the SSIS therefore, analysis was conducted on fair-weather and die-hard fans.
For the third objective, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants in order
to identify factors that would influence sport identity transitions. Three participants were
interviewed face to face; the remaining seven interviews were administered over the telephone.
The findings from the interviews identified several factors that influenced the participants’
support for the NRL club. All participants agreed that having good players playing for the club
was an influential factor in their support. However, when asked if they would still support the
team if they were not playing well, nine of the participants said that they would and their
support would not change.
In terms of identity transitions, it was noted that three participants were influenced by their
friends to become members of the NRL club. In contrast, a further three participants stated that
they became fans of the club because they liked being the only individual in their social
networks supporting the club.
21. 7
Five participants noted that their support for the club would change if players became involved
in off-field scandals and behaved badly. This was classified as a negative sport identity
transition.
1.5 Thesis Structure
The chapters that follow discuss in detail the existing literature, the methodology employed,
results and the discussion of the results. The literature review discusses the established
literature regarding sport consumption and sport identities. It is important to note here that,
throughout the thesis, when the term “supporter” is used, it describes spectators, fans and
members collectively.
The spectator-fan-member cycle is introduced in Chapter Two along with the modified model
of symbolic consumption, forming the conceptual framework for the thesis. Theories in sport
management are also introduced and discussed with regard to their possible application to the
study. Symbolic interactionism is then explored in further detail in relation to the study and
conceptual framework.
Chapter Three explains the methodology that was employed. The reasoning behind the
research approach is given along with the design of previously conducted research. The scales
that have been used in similar sport management studies are discussed, along with the SSIS
and SPEED scales that were used in the study. The methods that were used to collect the data
are explained, as well as the ethical implications of the research and the anticipated and
encountered obstacles.
Chapter Four presents the results from both the online survey and the semi-structured
interviews. Firstly the results from the online survey are presented and tabulated and this is
followed by the findings from the semi-structured interviews. The results can be understood to
provide an opportunity for the NRL club to make operational and marketing changes to attract
more supporters to the club based on the enhanced understanding of sport identities. The online
survey showed that excitement, esteem and performance were the main motivations for the
supporters of the club, while the themes emanating from the interviews gave some insight into
what influences an individual to support a sport team.
22. 8
The final chapter discusses the results in terms of how effective the study was in relation to the
research objectives and questions. Each objective is discussed, and the research questions are
answered based on the results. The conceptual framework is then evaluated. The data gave
insight to an understanding of sport consumption as a supporter’s experience of the sport, and
this therefore gave rise to an appreciation of experiential products in sport. The chapter also
includes recommendations to the NRL club. The contribution of this study towards current
sport management literature is then discussed along with the limitations and future research
opportunities.
23. 9
Chapter 2 – Literature Review: Exploring the Nature of Sport
Identities
2.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the concept of sport identities. A sport identity is one of many
identities that make up an individual’s self-concept. Behind the sport identity is some form of
motivation that drives an individual to support a team or consume sport. The chapter also
introduces the motivational aspects of sport in order to give an insight into the factors that
influence sport consumption. What follows is a discussion of the sport identities that are
prevalent is sport management literature and used in the conceptual framework, being that of
spectators, fans and members.
Theories in sport management literature are discussed, giving a theoretical background of the
sport management field and introducing the theory that will be applied to the study, symbolic
interactionism. This theory is a central component of the conceptual framework and has been
adapted from Mowen’s (1995) model of Symbolic Consumption.
The conceptual framework aims to identify how a symbolic purchase made by individuals, for
example a ticket or team merchandise, can influence the perception of themselves and the
perceptions that their reference groups have of them. The purchase either leads to sport identity
transformation, for example, the progression from spectator to fan to member, or leads to sport
identity preservation. The framework aids in identifying individual motivations for sport
consumption and in turn is used to assess the nature of sport identity transformation and
transition.
24. 10
2.2 Motivation behind Sport Consumption
In sport management, psychologists study behaviour in terms of attributes that exist within
different individuals, whether they are supporters or athletes (Coakley, 2001). These attributes
encompass motivation, perception, self-esteem and attitudes, to name a few. Motivation is a
central component in this study and is integral to the conceptual framework.
According to Wann, Melnick, Russell, and Pease (2001), motivation is a combination of
internal and external forces and influences that drive an individual to participate or consume
sport. However, paying more attention to the term motive, rather than motivation, Mahony,
Nakazawa, Funk, James and Gladden (2002) examined the term as an adjective, where the
notion implied that an instrument or driver, whether physical or mental, either caused or
implied that an action was going to happen. As a noun, the term motive takes the meaning of a
psychological feature, be it a desire, need or emotion, which acts as a stimulator to encourage
and/or engage in some form of action (Mahony et al, 2002).
For example, individuals might have a need to attend a match to support their favourite team.
The need could encompass various meanings, for example entertainment. Individuals can be
weary of their current use of time, and may decide to go to the local stadium to support their
team. Based on Mahony et al’s (2002) definitions, the motive for the individual was the
boredom they faced at the present time of thought, which acted as a stimulator for the
individual to leave their current confines and attend the match.
Based on previous studies and scales, Wann et al (2001) state that some of the most common
motives amongst supporters include group affiliation, family, self-esteem, and entertainment
factors. Various factors in different studies were all found to be of relevance when determining
one’s motivation in relation to supporters’ attitudes and behaviours regarding sports
consumption.
It is important to note that sport consumption refers to activities such as television viewing,
match attendance and purchasing team merchandise or sport magazines (Wann et al, 2001).
The motivations that are displayed by sport supporters can be either internal or external (Wann
Schrader & Wilson, 1999).
25. 11
It has been noted that supporters who consume sport purely for the enjoyment they receive are
intrinsically motivated (Wann, Schrader & Wilson, 1999). However, supporters who consume
sport for rewards and benefits, for example monetary rewards that are associated with
gambling, are extrinsically motivated (Wann, Schrader & Wilson, 1999). Thus, the
identification of dominating motives within each sport identity, being spectator, fan and
member can be used to suggest sport identity transitions, for example, from being a spectator to
becoming a fan.
2.3 Sport Identities
The sport management literature provides a wealth of information on spectator and fan
behaviour patterns that are used to determine their involvement and consumption of sport
products which include tickets, merchandise and television viewing. By determining the level
of involvement and consumption, predictions as to how supporters will further participate in
sport can be identified (Hill & Green, 2000; Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, & Gladden,
2002; Shank & Beasly, 1998; Van Leeuwen, Quick, & Daniel, 2002; Won & Kitamura, 2007).
Wann et al (2001) have studied the sport identities of spectators and fans in regards to sport
consumption. In this study, the term sport identity refers to the degree of importance, strength
and exclusivity an individual attaches to their role as a supporter, which is maintained by the
individual and influenced by the environment (Cieslak, 2004). In this context, the term
“supporter” is used to describe the various sport identities collectively, being spectator, fan and
member, without referring to a specific identity.
It is important to note that a sport identity is one of many identities that form an individual’s
self concept. A self concept is the manner in which individuals perceive themselves and want
to be perceived by others (Brooks, 1998). For example, an individual may be an athlete, a
football supporter, a son or daughter or a boyfriend or girlfriend, providing the individual with
multiple identities within their self-concept. Therefore, when the term sport identity is
mentioned and used, it refers to one aspect of an individual’s self concept that is central to this
study.
26. 12
As one form of sport identity, a spectator is an individual who witnesses an event in person or
through some form of media. Spectators are also categorised as sport consumers. According to
Wann and his colleagues (2001), there are two categories of sport consumers, being that of
direct and indirect. Direct consumers require individuals to have a physical presence at a
sporting event, whereas indirect consumers are those individuals who are exposed to sport by
some form of media (Wann et al, 2001). Regardless of whether an individual is a direct or
indirect consumer of sport, that person is still a spectator (Wann et al, 2001).
The sport identity of a fan is determined by their interest in following a sport, a team and/or
athlete (Wann et al, 2001). Similar to the spectator identity, fans are also categorised based on
their identification. Wann et al (2001) propose two tiers of fans, being fair-weather and die-
hard fans. The fair-weather fan is a person with a low level of sport identification, where the
role of being a supporter is a marginal component of their self-concept (Wann et al, 2001).
However, the die-hard fan is a person with a high level of sport identification, where the role of
being a supporter is a central component of their self-concept (Wann et al, 2001).
There has been little research into what behaviours and attributes constitute a member. Studies
by Mahony et al (2002) and Won and Kitamura (2007) indicated that team affiliation, for
example being a member, influenced match attendance. The authors recommended sport
marketers use existing club members, who are already attached to the team, to recruit other
supporters to be more than spectators. However, these and similar studies did not mention or
attempt to identify the differences between members, fans or spectators.
Based on the literature regarding sport identities (Funk & James, 2004; Shank & Beasly, 1998;
Wann & Branscombe, 1993; Wann et al, 2001), a definition of what constitutes a member has
been developed for the purposes of this study. A member is an individual who makes a
financial contribution towards the operations of a sporting club, in return for varying benefits
depending on their membership status, for example season ticket offers and merchandise
discounts. The definition will be revisited in the discussion chapter and discussed further in
relation to the results
27. 13
Discussing the sport identities incorporated in this study, Figure 2.1 (below) shows the
proposed spectator-fan-member cycle which is central to the study’s conceptual framework.
The model is represented as a cycle because there is no starting point, the transformation of
identities can occur at any moment and identity transitions are easily identifiable and can be
reversible.
For instance, if an individual at a sporting event with their group of peers is the only person not
a member of one of the clubs playing at that time, that person may feel left out and may then
find a need to become a member in order to feel more a part of the social group. Thus, either
internal and/or external influences can play a role in forming an individual’s sport identity
(Wann, Schrader & Wilson, 1999).
Figure 2.1: Spectator-Fan-Member Cycle
(Adapted from Frosdick and Walley, 1997)
Frosdick and Walley (1997) developed a cycle in relation to strategic vision of an organisation
which, although having different components to those in figure 2.1, can be understood to have
similar dynamic properties. For example, both arrow heads signify changes between
components can occur in either direction. Building on this, Frosdick and Walley (1997) further
explain that in their cycle, the three stages of strategic vision are involved with each other. An
organisation could be at one stage; however it might still be conducting operations at another
stage (Frosdick & Walley, 1997).
SPECTATOR
FAN
MEMBER
28. 14
The theory behind Frosdick and Walley’s (1997) model is applicable to Figure 2.1 as
individuals could have their sport identity already formed, for example as a fan, however they
could display attributes of another identity, for example spectator. Similarly, an individual who
is a member might also be a spectator even though that person’s interest in a sporting team may
not be so highly developed as to be classified a fan.
This proposition does not entirely coincide with the work of Wann et al (2001) as those authors
appear to suggest that sport identities are one dimensional, giving the impression, for example,
that only the spectator sport identity can consume sport directly and/or indirectly. However, as
seen by Frosdick and Walley (1997) and the application of their theory to the spectator-fan-
member cycle, it is possible for individuals to have an already formed sport identity and
display attributes of another. For example, an individual with a sport identity of a fan can
consume sport directly and indirectly as can a spectator.
2.4 Theories in Sport Management
This section discusses the theories that are prevalent in sport management literature, with
reference to the applicability to the research. The theories include functionalist theory, conflict
theory, critical theory, feminist theory and interactionist theory.
Coakley (2001) explored the theories that have been used by academics in the sport
management context over the past century. Each theory presents a different perspective in
regards to the relationship between sport and society (Brooks, 1998; Coakley, 2001). In this
context, theories are emerging explanations of what is known about social constructs, where
logic and evidence are used to determine whether a theory is justifiable and whether it should
be revised or abandoned (Coakley, 2001).
29. 15
2.4.1 Functionalist Theory
Functionalist theory is formed and based on the assumptions that society is an organised
system containing interrelated components that are held together due to established shared
values and social arrangements (Coakley, 2001; Parks, Quarterman, & Thibault, 2007). This
maintains a state of balance and equilibrium within society. In the sport management context,
functionalist theory focuses on the ways that sport contributes to the overall operations of
societies, communities and organisations (Coakley, 2001; Parks et al, 2007).
However, functionalist theory does not acknowledge that sports are social constructs of their
own, leading to the misconception that sports are stable institutions that serve specific
functions within society (Coakley, 2001; Parks et al, 2007). Along with this approach,
functionalist theory operates on the basis that everyone in society has the same needs,
overlooking cases where sports benefit certain social groups over others (Coakley, 2001; Parks
et al, 2007).
2.4.2 Conflict Theory
Having a similar assumption as functionalist theory, that societies are systems, conflict theory
however is concerned with the way in which sports are formed by economic forces and are
used by the economically powerful and influential in society to increase their status (Coakley,
2001; Parks et al, 2007). The assumption is that societies are a system of relationships and
social arrangements that are shaped and influenced by economic forces (Coakley, 2001). Thus,
conflict theorists often focus on the negative ways in which sports perpetuate the unequal
distribution of power and economic resources in society (Parks et al, 2007).
However, conflict theory tends to ignore the notion that sports involve experiences that can
empower individuals and groups. Rather, it focuses on how the wealthy or the elites in society
use sport as a mechanism for increased control (Coakley, 2001). This approach does not
consider that sport participation can be personally liberating and can inspire individuals to
make economic changes within society (Coakley, 2001).
30. 16
2.4.3 Critical Theory
In sport management, critical theory explains that in addition to reflecting societies, sports are
sites where culture and social organisation are produced, reproduced and changed (Coakley,
2001). The theory is a contrast to that of the functionalist and conflict theories as societies are
too complex to be described just as systems (Coakley, 2001; Parks et al, 2007). Critical theory
is used to understand the structure, organisation and meaning of sports in connection with
changing relationships between social constructs in society that possess different amounts of
power (Coakley, 2001).
In general, critical theory does not provide guidelines for when sports change and reproduce
culture and social organisation (Coakley, 2001). Rather, the theory emphasises that this change
(sports influencing and reproducing culture and social organisation) occurs naturally within the
society. Although research has identified circumstances where sports have been used as sites
for resistance and social change (for example, the black power salute given by Tommie Smith
and John Carlos at the 1968 Olympics), critical theorists do not outline the criteria used to
make this assessment and where it is most likely that such resistance and change would occur,
and under what circumstances (Coakley, 2001).
2.4.4 Feminist Theory
Feminist theory is based on the notion that knowledge about social life requires an
understanding of power and the dynamics of gender and gender relations (Parks et al, 2007).
The theory explains how women have been devalued and oppressed in many societies and the
emphasis is on gender equity as a prerequisite for social development and progress (Coakley,
2001). In the sport management context, feminist theory focuses on critiquing and
transforming the culture and organisation of sports so they represent both gender perspectives
and experiences (Coakley, 2001).
Sports often tend to display a quest for domination, and professional sports tend to lean
towards the masculine side (Coakley, 2001). However, in recent years women have
participated in sports that were once male dominated, such as basketball, soccer and rugby
league. This is becoming a social norm in which gender does not play as heavy a role in sport
participation as it once did (Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003).
31. 17
However, Coakley (2001) states that feminist theorists have been slow to theorise the newly
established connections between gender in sport and other categories such as experience
related to age, race, social class and religion.
2.4.5 Interactionist Theory
The last of the sport management related theories and the one most relevant to this thesis is
interactionist theory. This theory focuses on issues related to meaning, identity, social
relationships and subcultures in sport (Coakley, 2001). Based on this notion, individuals, as
they interact with one another, give meanings to themselves, others and the world around them
and they use these meanings as a basis for decision making (Armstrong, 2007; Coakley, 2001).
In this theory, power is placed with the individual to make a decision whether or not to
participate in or consume sport.
Identities, as referred to by Coakley (2001), are influential because individuals interact with
one another and create their social surroundings. The formations of identities are stepping
stones for self control and in turn they give direction in our everyday lives (Coakley, 2001).
Identities that individuals posses do not necessarily stay the same throughout time (Armstrong,
2007; Coakley, 2001). However, it is time that gives individuals the opportunity to make sense
of their relationships and their surroundings, which in turn influence their decisions and
inevitably change and shape their identities.
Individuals who consume sport, whether through media, merchandise purchases or game
attendances, have the potential to change or modify their identities based on the relationships
they form and their assessments of their surroundings while the consumption takes place. This
in turn can influence an individual to change his or her sport identity (identity transformation)
or preserve the person’s sport identity (identity preservation).
A limitation of interactionist theory brought to attention by Coakley (2001) is that the theory
only focuses on relationships and definitions of reality without attempting to explain that the
interaction and construction of meaning in sports are influenced by such factors as social
organisation and power. Coupled with this, interactionist theory does not provide critical
visions of the ways in which sports and societies could and should be organised (Coakley,
2001).
32. 18
2.5 Theoretical Approach
The study investigates individuals who choose to participate and consume sport, where the
central focus is on the sport identities of spectators, fans and members of sport clubs and
organisations. The most relevant theory is interactionism as it focuses on the individuals’
identities and social interactions (Coakley, 2001). Stemming from interactionism, symbolic
interactionism appears to be the most relevant theory as it looks at the connections that human
beings make between themselves and things/experiences, in turn forming and developing
identities (Armstrong, 2007).
2.5.1 Symbolic Interactionism
George Hebert Mead laid the foundations of the symbolic interactionism approach during his
time as a professor at the University of Chicago (Blumer, 1986). Mead's key contribution to
the field of social psychology was his effort to show how the human self can arise in a
process of social interaction by way of linguistic communication (Blumer, 1986).
Being an interactionist theory, symbolic interactionism illuminates how individuals define their
experiences and give meaning to their identities, behaviours, realities and social interactions
(Armstrong, 2007). The focus is on one’s self and the theory examines symbolic meanings
associated with an individual’s experience in relation to self identity (Armstrong, 2007).
Blumer (1986) gives a background to symbolic interactionism identifying the three premises of
the theory. The first premise is that human beings act towards things/experiences on the basis
of the meaning that is attached to them (Armstrong, 2007; Blumer, 1986). Things can include
physical objects, other human beings or in the sport management context watching a team play,
(an experience), or purchasing merchandise, (a thing).
The second premise is that the source of the meaning for the thing/experience arises out of
social interactions with others (Armstrong, 2007; Blumer, 1986). The third premise is that the
meanings given to the things/experiences are handled and modified through an interpretive
process used by the individual in dealing with the things/experiences that person encounters
(Armstrong, 2007; Blumer, 1986).
33. 19
Symbolic interactionism is the most relevant theory for this study as it helps understand how
individuals can give meaning to things and experiences, for example following a rugby league
team. The theory is also applicable as it aids in identifying how individuals can apply certain
meanings to their favourite sport team and which behaviours stem from their symbolic
meaning, in turn aiding in the development of their sport identity (Armstrong, 2007; Brooks,
1998).
In relation to symbolic interactionism in sport management, Armstrong (2007) discusses
symbolic consumption, being a form of symbolic interactionism transformed in consumer
behaviour. With this concept, Armstrong (2007) states that symbolic purchases are only as
effective as the meanings that consumers attach to them, aligning with the first premise of
symbolic interactionist theory (Blumer, 1986).
The meaning that an individual attaches to the symbolic purchase can be greater than the actual
benefits of the product itself. Armstrong (2007) states that the influence of a symbolic product
could be a personal gain because the individual may perceive his or her self differently and
hope that others do as well. Thus, the meaning given to things and experiences aids in the
formation of one’s identity, specifically the development of an individual’s sport identity
(Armstrong, 2007).
For meaning to be placed on a symbolic product by an individual, Armstrong (2007) has
identified that the product must contain three characteristics. Firstly, the product must have
some form of visibility so the symbolic consumption may be seen by others. For example, the
visibility can range from team merchandise that an individual buys and displays on themselves
to that person walking through the gates of a stadium. When others see that person at a game,
they know that the individual has bought the ticket to attend the match, thus contributing to the
symbolic meaning of the purchase.
The second characteristic of a symbolic product is that of the variability in brand purchases.
This means that a product an individual decides to purchase might not be widely recognised or
affordable, in turn differentiating them from others. For example, at stadiums different seats
attract different prices for the tickets.
34. 20
Individuals who have the better seats are known to have paid more, giving the general
population of attendees the impression that they have the monetary resources to afford those
seats. This could change the self perception of individuals, as they may see themselves as
exhibiting a form of loyalty by purchasing those tickets, while others’ perception of them may
change as well based on an individual’s ability to afford those expensive tickets.
Thirdly, the symbolic product should have personalisability. This means that the product
should contain some form of personal identification with the team an individual supports, a
favourite player or team logos or slogans. If an individual is seen to be displaying a product
with any of the personal identifications mentioned, they will be recognised by their peers,
altering their possible perception of them and for the individual, that person could feel he or
she belongs to the reference group.
For products that can be purchased on numerous occasions, for example match tickets,
Armstrong (2007) suggests that an individual will purchase a product repetitively based on the
symbolic meaning/s the individual places on the product and/or activity. For example,
individuals who have a strong identification with the teams they follow and support, along with
the identification with their reference groups, could see matches as a way to express support
and loyalty towards their teams and to show others their sport identity.
2.6 Theoretical Application
In reference to the sport management theories, both functionalist and conflict theories focus on
societal needs and how sports are related to the satisfaction of those needs and to the overall
operations of society (Parks et al, 2007). The theories take a top-down approach and do not
take into account how sports contribute to everyday situations, where individuals give meaning
to sporting activities and how they influence their life (Armstrong, 2007; Coakley, 2001).
The critical and feminist theories focus on how society and sports interact with one another on
a larger scale. Issues such as gender in sport and society and having sports sites as focal points
of culture and social interaction are vital in the sport management context. However, these
theories do not focus on the individual and how meanings derived from things and experiences
enable sport identity formation (Coakley, 2001), which is the central theme of the thesis.
35. 21
Reference
Group
Symbolic
Product
Person’s
Self-Concept
Person’s
Sport Identity
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
S
F
M
Spectator
Fan
Member
Building on the sport identities and sport consumption ientified by Wann et al (2001) and
relating back to the Spectator-Fan-Member cycle, Armstrong (2007) describes the process of
sport consumption with the theory of symbolic interactionism and Mowen’s (1995) Symbolic
Consumption Model.
Mowen’s (1995) model involves the person’s self-concept, symbolic product and a reference
group, and it describes a process of 1) the person buying a symbolic product, 2) the reference
group associating that product with the person, and 3) the reference group attributes being
transferred to the person due to the nature of the product (Armstrong, 2007). However, the
application of both the model and the theory fail to mention the formation of a new identity (or
identity preservation) within the self-concept. In Figure 2.2, Mowen’s (1995) model has been
altered as a cycle to be context specific to sport.
Figure 2.2: Model of Symbolic Consumption in Sport
(Adapted and modified from Mowen (1995) and Armstrong (2007))
36. 22
In Figure 2.2, the components of the cycle that have been modified are steps 2, 3, 4 and 5,
along with the inclusion of the ‘Person’s Sport Identity’. The spectator, fan and member cycle
is attached to show the connection to the fourth component of the model, being an individual’s
sport identity.
Having previously defined the terms self concept and sport identity, the next step is to define
the remaining components of the model. A symbolic product is an item that is given a symbolic
meaning by the purchasing individual (Armstrong, 2007). It can also be an object and/or
activity in which individuals define themselves and/or communicate themselves to others
(Armstrong, 2007). Moving onto the final component, a reference group is a group to which
individuals refer to or make reference to when evaluating themselves (Armstrong, 2007).
From the model provided by Mowen (1995), the only remaining component of the altered
model is Step one. Step two has remaining and modified elements as in this step there is more
of an interaction between the individual and the reference group as compared to that of the
original representation. Here, the individual hopes that the reference group will have the
intended perception of his or her symbolic product whilst the reference group identifies the
individual by the product purchased. In turn, the individual identifies with the intended
reference group.
The third step in the model involves the reference group accepting the individual based on the
symbolic qualities of the product via verbal and/or non-verbal communication. Step four is
where the individual redefines his or her self concept with a new or transformed sport identity.
The redefinition of one’s self concept can be based on the attributes given to that person by the
reference group and/or by the new meaning given to the symbolic product.
It is in Step four where the spectator-fan-member cycle is applied to the model. The cycle
diagrammatically depicts an individual’s transition, or lack of it, from one sport identity to
another. The motives for the transition can be identified by following the previous steps in the
Symbolic Consumption model, then those motives can be applied to the spectator-fan-member
cycle to account for and identify why the individual has had a sport identity transition or has
preserved his or her identity.
37. 23
In addition, the fifth step is where the individual continues his or her participation/support
through direct or indirect consumption, purchasing merchandise and/or becoming a registered
member. Based on the outcome of Step 4, the individual can increase or decrease his or her
involvement once the cycle renews itself.
In terms of symbolic products, it is possible to say that a product does not have to have only
physical attributes. Within the framework, the symbolic product could also be an experience,
giving use to a symbolic experience. In the case of an NRL club, the product that is offered by
the national competition is the game, where individuals may attend for various reasons. The
experience associated with this product deserves special mention.
2.7 Experiential Products
Products that have both tangible and intangible attributes can be classified within the service,
event or experience sectors in marketing (Kotler, Brown, Adam, Burton and Armstrong, 2007).
Kotler et al (2007) identify services to be activities that one party can offer to another that do
not result in the ownership of anything. Further attributes of services include intangibility,
inseparability, variability and perishability. All of these attributes can be understood to be
present when attending an NRL game, or even when witnessing the game through media.
Event marketing combines physical products with elements of services that include the
experiences associated with sport and entertainment events which are delivered over a period
of time (Kotler et al, 2007). By extending the goods and services application, events marketing
and products appear to be the most appropriate classification for the product that an NRL game
provides. The experiential aspect of the event adds value to customers who buy products and
services through their attendance at games and through their connection with environmental
aspects of the attendance (Kotler et al, 2007).
By classifying and treating NRL games as experiences, it can be possible to employ strategies
to make the product more appealing for individuals who attend matches. In reference to Figure
2.2, the experience could possibly be a contributing factor in sport identity transition.
38. 24
2.8 Conclusion
The chapter has discussed and identified and discussed previous research and literature in
relation to motivation and sport identities. These were discussed in order to form the ground
work for the study. The first component of the conceptual framework was introduced; being
the spectator-fan-member cycle, and this was followed by a discussion of scales that gave a
background to how these two components were measured in previous studies.
The chapter explored the different theories in the sport management field and argued that
interactionism, more specifically symbolic interactionism, was the most appropriate theory that
could be applied to the study. Once identifying the application of symbolic interactionism, the
second component of the conceptual framework was introduced and discussed.
The Symbolic Consumption model developed by Mowen (1995) was modified for the purposes
of this study. Where the previous model contained three steps, the modification now sees the
model expand and grow to five. In addition, the chapter expanded the symbolic product
component of the framework to include experiences represented by attendance at an NRL
game.
The following chapter discusses the methods that were used to collect data for the study, the
instruments that were used for data collection, as well as the obstacles encountered.
39. 25
Chapter 3 – Research Design and Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the procedures that were used to conduct the research. Based on the
study’s objectives, both quantitative and qualitative instruments were used. The quantitative
portion of the research involved two surveys which were distributed to participants via email
and presented to them as an online survey. The qualitative portion of the study involved semi-
structured interviews with participants in order to gain an in-depth knowledge and
understanding of their sport identity and support of the NRL club.
The research design was developed and applied to accommodate the geographical locations of
the research and the NRL club, while time and cooperation of participants also presented
challenges with regard to data collection. Previous studies also contributed to the justification,
while explanations of instruments that were used, the recruitment methods and the obstacles
encountered are also presented below.
3.2 Research Design
The research focused on rugby league supporters with particular attention to their sport
identity, which can encompass spectator, fan or member. The study is based on and was
conducted with a participating National Rugby League (NRL) club that is based outside New
South Wales.
The research had three objectives. The first was to examine the sport identity (spectator, fan
and member) of the club’s supporters. The second objective aimed to discover what motivates
the supporters, for example social interaction, entertainment and/or diversion. The third
objective was to identify which factors (motives) promote and produce a transition between the
sport identities, for example, from being a spectator to becoming a fan, to becoming a member.
40. 26
In the first component of the research design, convenience volunteer sampling methods
(O'Leary, 2004) were used to collect quantitative data using an online survey from volunteer
participants (n=150), who were supporters of the participating NRL club. The online survey
utilised both Wann and Branscombe's (1993) Sports Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS) and
Beaton, Filo and Funk's (2007) Social Interaction, Performance, Esteem, Entertainment and
Diversion (SPEED) survey to measure supporters' sport identity and motives, respectively.
In the second component of the research design, a snowball sampling technique (O'Leary,
2004) was used to recruit volunteer participants (n=10) for face-to-face interviews. A poster
was placed on a noticeboard in the Sport Management offices at the University of Western
Sydney, Campbelltown, to invite students who were supporters of the NRL club to participate
in the interview. From this initial recruitment, the snowballing technique was used to source
further participants for interview, who were nominated by those initial participants who
responded to the poster invitation.
3.2.1 Applying the Research Design
The research design was developed in accordance to the objectives of the study. Having the
first two objectives identifying participants’ sport identity and their motivations, a quantitative
approach was taken in the form of an online survey. The third objective examined the
participants’ motivations by investigating any possibilities of identity transition. To determine
the factors that could promote identity transitions, semi-structured interviews were conducted
with volunteer participants.
The online survey consisted of two scales that were combined to form the one online
instrument, whereas the semi-structured interviews used questions adapted from Coakley
(2001). The following discussion explores the scales that have been used in past sport
management studies. From this, the scales that were considered most suited for the research are
identified.
41. 27
3.2.1.1 Scales used in Sport Management
Although sport identities have been studied and given meaning in relation to the attitudes and
behaviours displayed by each, none address directly nor attempt to identify possible transitions
between sport identities based on sport consumption. Previous scales were developed in order
to identify the factors that were believed to cause the desired behaviours exhibited by sport
supporters (Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James & Gladden, 2002). By identifying these
numerous factors, researchers were then able to examine the relationship between these factors
and the behaviours of sport consumers (Mahony et al, 2002). The scales used in sport
management literature with regard to sport consumer motivation are discussed below.
Sport Fan Motivation Scale
Wann (1995) developed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) that consists of eight motives,
being eustress, self-esteem, escape, entertainment, family, group affiliation, economic factors
and aesthetics, (Wann et al, 2001). The scale was based on existing motivational theories and
conceptual literature in sport sociology (Won & Kitamura, 2007; Trial & James, 2001). The
SFMS aimed to document the motives of sport fans and determine the significance of each
motive (Trial & James, 2001).
Trial and James (2001) have suggested that the validity of the SFMS is of concern as Wann
(1995) did not identify how the items used in the scale were generated. Along with this
concern, Trial and James (2001) argued that the convergent validity of the scale is questionable
because of the processes used to generate the goodness of the fit (GFI), and the discriminant
validity is of concern as Wann (1995) did not verify that the different constructs in the SFMS
were actually distinct.
Motivations of the Sport Consumer Scale
Milne and McDonald (1999) developed a twelve factor scale with thirty-seven items called the
Motivations of the Sport Consumer (MSC). The scale was designed from established sport
motivational theories and the motivation theory of Maslow (1943) (Won & Kitamura, 2007).
42. 28
The scaled aimed to measure participant and spectator motives based on the twelve constructs
being risk taking, stress reduction, aggression, affiliation, social facilitation, self-esteem,
competition, achievement, skill mastery, aesthetics, value development and self-actualisation
(Funk, Ridinger & Moorman, 2003).
Trial and James (2001) and Funk et al (2003) suggested that the scale contained constructs that
were not suited for measuring motives for both spectators and participants. Some motives may
have been common for participants and spectators, however some did not apply; for example
skill mastery is not considered to be a motive of a participant (Funk et al, 2003). Furthermore,
Trail and James’s (2001) assessment of the MSC found that there were concerns with the
convergent validity and criterion validity (Won & Kitamura, 2007; Funk et al, 2003).
Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption
Based on the assessment of both SFMS and MSC scales, Trial and James (2001) developed the
Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC). The scale was designed to counter the
weaknesses presented in previous scales (SFMS, MSC) and to extend the design of an
instrument that was able to assess sport consumer motives with more reliability and validity
(Funk et al, 2003; Trial & James, 2001). The MSSC was made up of nine factors that were
initially hypothesised to investigate behaviour related to sport consumption and on assessment,
the MSSC scale was found to be psychometrically reliable and valid (Funk et al, 2003).
In support of the SFSM and MSC, both scales according to Funk et al (2003) were designed to
assess sport spectator motivational constructs. The scales were general in nature and samples
that were used in both scales did not appear to be sport-specific (Funk et al, 2003; Trial &
James, 2001). For the MSSC, not only did the scale go through vigorous statistical analysis in
order to prove its psychometric worth, but the samples that were selected for the study were
also sport-specific (Funk et al, 2003).
Sport Interest Inventory
After assessing the scales above, Funk et al (2003) argued that the scales were not context
specific. The argument was that scales should be context specific in terms of the study being
undertaken. However, the other side of the argument can be seen to be the issue of time and
43. 29
resources to develop a sound scale for the purposes of one study. By having existing valid and
reliable scales, researchers can incorporate and implement the scales across all sport contexts
that in turn give comprehensive and sound results.
With the contextual application in mind, Funk et al (2003) augmented a previous scale, the
Sport Interest Inventory (SII), to cater to the study of sport consumption in women’s
professional sports. The SII originally contained fourteen items, however after confirmatory
factor analysis and discriminant validity tests were performed, the scale was extended to
eighteen constructs. This was done in order to make the scale more adaptable when applied to
women’s professional sport (Funk et al, 2003).
One of the weaknesses of the SII was the number of items associated with the scale. There
were eighteen factors/constructs, each containing three items and totalling fifty-four items.
This was considered a very long and time consuming scale for participants. However, the
strength of the SII was that it was more contextually specific (Won & Kitamura, 2007).
SPEED Scale
The SFMS, MSC, MSSC and SII are valuable instruments for measuring motivation amongst
sport consumers. However, with reference to this study, these scales were not applicable in
ways that could have been practically useful (Beaton et al, 2007). For this reason, the Social
Interaction Performance, Esteem, Excitement and Diversion scale (SPEED) developed by
Beaton et al (2007) was been adopted for this study. The scale consists of five factors, with
three items each, thus totalling fifteen items.
The SPEED scale had been designed by drawing upon earlier scales and their integration
(Beaton et al, 2007). For example, the SFMS, MSSC and SII were tabled and compared, in turn
identifying five constructs which represent common themes among the scales that sufficiently
depict sport consumer motivations (Beaton et al, 2007). The constructs/factors in the scale are
social interaction, performance, excitement, esteem and diversion (Beaton et al, 2007).
The scale has been recently used in a cross-code sport study and according to Beaton et al
(2007) the constructs show promise as useful measures of sport consumers’ motivation to
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attend sport events. Not only is the scale concise and can be applied easily, differentiations can
be made between individuals who attend games and those who do not.
With reference to the objectives of the study, the SPEED scale could assist in identifying what
motivational factors influenced supporters to attend matches, and what drives individuals to
consume sport. The scale has the capacity to differentiate significant motivational differences
between spectators, fans and members with regard to sport consumption, where certain motives
could be considered instrumental in possible identity transformations and transitions.
SSIS Scale
The SSIS was developed to assist in the assessment of team identification exhibited by
individuals who consume sport (Wann et al, 2001). The survey comprised seven items which
participants answered using a scale of one to eight. The lower numbers on the scale represent
low levels of team identification, whereas the higher numbers represent high levels of team
identification. To obtain a final score from the scale, which determines the level of team
identification, answers will be totalled to all seven responses. Scores below 18 suggest low
levels of team identification, scores between 18 and 35 indicate medium levels of team
identification, and scores above 35 will show high levels of team identification.
3.2.1.2 The Online Survey
The first component of the research consisted of an online survey that used two established
scales, being the SSIS and SPEED scales. The SSIS assisted in the first research objective of
examining the sport identity of the NRL club’s supporters. The scale would determine the level
of fandom participants’ display towards the club. The participants would be categorised as
spectator or fan depending on the sum of the seven items answered in the survey.
Members, however, would be identified at the beginning of the online survey, where the
participants were given the opportunity to express their membership status with a yes or no
response. Although members would not be directly identified and grouped by the outcome of
the SSIS, the scale would help identify the level of fandom and team identification a member
displays. This information would be used for analysis to help identify common attributes
between the sport identities.
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The SPEED scale identified what motivates the supporters, being the second objective of the
study. The scale would also help to discover which factors are more prominent within each
sport identity. For example, there could be a consistent trend where the performance factor is
high among the members and low amongst the spectators.
Because both tools have different scale structures (SSIS having an eight point scale and the
SPEED having five point scale), the scales were made consistent with eight points. As the
scales were presented as being one survey, the consistency was an important factor to make the
online experience for the participants easy and flowing. The reason an even scale was chosen
was because it would force the participant to make a choice, instead of relying on the middle
point of the scale. The scale design makes the participant actually think about the question and
choose an appropriate answer (Dillman, 2007).
Online survey methods have become increasingly popular (Dillman, 2007). In this research, the
online survey was considered the appropriate method due to the geographical location of the
NRL club, as the majority of the participating supporters were understood to reside outside
New South Wales. A significant advantage of conducting online surveys is that it allows the
opportunity to collect a large amount of data in a short period (Dillman, 2007), and issues of
mailing and data entry are avoided.
The disadvantages of conducting online surveys are twofold. The first is that of the sample
quality. It has been suggested that individuals of all ages can access the internet and the data
can therefore be questionable because it may not be representative of the target population
(Dillman, 2007). In an attempt to address this concern, a web link to the online survey was
distributed via email by the NRL club to its supporters who were over the age of eighteen. (The
email sent by the club to its supporters appears as Appendix A, and the supporting Participant
Information Sheet is Appendix B)
The second disadvantage of conducting online surveys relates to technical problems. Such
problems include computer crashes or screen freezes. In the event that this did occur while a
participant was in the process of completing the survey, the survey was taken to be incomplete
and was stored in an incomplete file.
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However, if this did occur, the participant had to start the survey from the beginning. This was
necessary because participants did not have a login to access the survey, so participants
completed the survey only from a live link. (The Online Survey appears as Appendix C).
3.2.1.3 The Semi- Structured Interviews
In the second component of the research, semi-structures interviews were conducted to achieve
the third objective of the study. A snowballing technique was employed to attract participants
who were willing to participate in the study and to invite these to nominate other potential
participants. According to McMurray, Pace and Scott (2004), snowball sampling involves
initially identifying and selecting a group of participants, and using them to identify other
participants within the desired target population.
In this research, a recruitment poster was specifically designed to attract participants from the
target population for the interview process. (This appears as Appendix H.) Once an individual
responded to the poster, that person would be recruited to complete a paper-based version of
the online survey (Appendix E), before being interviewed. The interviews used nine open-
ended questions adopted from Coakley (2001), to identify the transition between identities of
the participants and go in depth into their support for the NRL club. The questions were
designed to encourage the participant to engage with the researcher. This was intended to lead
to richer, more in depth responses.
3.2.1.4 Sport Management and Mixed Approaches
The design of the research allowed for both quantitative and qualitative components, thus
contributing to a mixed methodology approach (Jones 1997). Jones (1997) highlights the
importance of a mixed approach towards research conducted in the sport management field. No
one approach should be considered better than the others. Instead, the methods that are chosen
must be the best match to achieve the research objectives (McMurray et al, 2004).
47. 33
A mixed methodology appeared to be the most appropriate for this study because the
quantitative design for addressing objectives one and two would allow for the assessment of
behavioural and motivational components of the sport identities (Jones, 1997). Following that,
the qualitative portion of the study would provide a deeper exploration of the issues, and thus
greater understanding of the sport identities and transitions represented by objective three.
Having quantitative and qualitative portions would enrich the conclusions to be taken from the
data and would give greater meaning and understanding to the findings. In support of the use of
a mixed methods approach, a similar approach has been used in sport management research to
investigate motivation and sport identities (Funk et al, 2003).
3.2.2 Data Collection
The data that was collected for the study used an online survey and semi-structured interviews.
The instruments used for the online survey were the SSIS and the SPEED scales. To provide
responses on the surveys, participants were required to click on either a “YES” or “NO” option
or click on a number between one and eight on an eight point scale. These responses were then
used to analyse the sport identity and motivations of participants.
With the semi-structured interviews, participants filled out a paper based version of the online
survey and also engaged in an interview in the form of a conversation with the researcher.
Audio recordings of participant responses were made. These were later transcribed. To analyse
the data, a matrix was created of the common themes and trends from participant responses in
order to see if there were any possibilities of identity transitions. Data collection is discussed in
detail below.
3.2.2.1 Completing the Online Survey
The SSIS contained seven questions (items) on an eight point scale that aimed to assess the
level of team identification displayed or held by an individual. For the purposes of the research,
the results from this portion of the online survey aimed to categorise each participant as either
a spectator or a fan based on a total numerical value of all responses.
48. 34
Because any individual could be classified within one of the three sporting identities (spectator,
fan or member) and at the same time display characteristics of another (Frosdick & Walley,
1997), the survey allowed for the possibility that a member could also display and possess the
characteristics of a fan or spectator.
The first portion of the online survey, being the demographic questions along with the SSIS
instrument, aimed to group each individual into one of the three sport identities. The second
portion, being the fifteen item SPEED scale, aimed to discover what motivates the supporters
and which of these motivations were more prominent in each of the sport identities.
On the SPEED scale, the term Excitement has been referred to in previous scales and literature
as Entertainment. Exchanging the two terms was considered in order to be consistent with
previous scales and sport management literature, however the option to maintain the term
Excitement was used in order for the SPEED scale to be reliable and valid as Beaton et al
(2007) had designed originally.
In the original format, the SPEED scale was divided into five sections, Social Interaction,
Performance, Esteem, Entertainment and Diversion, respectively. Within each section there
were three items that assessed the level of motivation displayed by an individual within that
category. For example, the Excitement section of the scale is drawn to assess the drama and
suspense associated with the sport being examined, and how highly this factor motivates the
individual.
If the scale was presented in its original form, the questions within each section following one
another would appear to be mundane for the participant as they are very similar in nature.
According to Dillman (2007), by having a survey structured where questions that follow one
another are alike, although they are measuring different elements, would not keep the
participant interested for the full duration of the survey and this could result in uncompleted
responses or falsified answers. Therefore, the questions were arranged in a manner where one
item of each section would follow onto a different item from another section.
49. 35
For example, question 1 Social Interaction, question 2 Performance, question 3 Esteem,
question 4 Entertainment and question 5 Diversion. This order was repeated another two times
to make up the fifteen items within the SPEED scale. In rearranging the order of the items, the
scale, in regards to content, was not modified as this would have affected its reliability and
validity.
All changes that were made to the SPEED scale and the design for the online survey were for
visual presentation purposes. This was done in order to encourage the participant to engage in
the study whilst also keeping their interest for the full duration of the survey (Dillman, 2007).
The launch of the survey involved the NRL club sending out the necessary information to the
club supporters, including the web link to the survey. The club sent an email to all club
members outlining the purpose of the research and the online survey. The members could then
choose to either participate in the research or simply disregard the email.
While the research focused on three sporting identities (spectator, fan, member), the club sent
the email containing the link to the survey only to members. In an attempt to include spectators
and fans, those members were invited to pass the email onto other potential participants who
were not members of the club. This allowed for the possibility of participation by spectators or
fans, and this also assured the recruitment of total participants.
With regard to completed surveys, the data was stored in an online database where access to
results is only available to the researcher. Once the time period ended for the online surveys to
be completed, which was approximately two months, all results were exported into a Microsoft
Excel worksheet. Then, once organised appropriately, the data was then be transferred into
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and that program was used for the statistical
analysis of the survey.
3.2.2.2 Conducting the Semi-Structured Interviews
As previously mentioned, participants for the semi-structured interviews were recruited by
using a poster notifying them of the research being conducted and in order to increase the
participant numbers, telephone interviewing was employed. The poster enabled self-selecting
50. 36
participants to contact the researcher for further details and using a snowball approach for
further recruitment, participants were interviewed either in person or over the telephone.
Silverman (2006) identified suitable approaches for conducting telephone interviews, including
making appropriate initial contact with the “answerer” and managing the relationship
throughout. These methods were adopted in the study.
The first portion of the interview process involved the participant filling in a paper version of
the online survey. The survey took approximately five minutes to complete and once it was; an
interlude of approximately five minutes followed to provide the participant with a break
between activates. The survey was presented to the participants in each interview in order to
gain consistency with the quantitative portion and was used alongside the interview transcript,
which was generated upon the completion of each session with the participants.
For the telephone interviewees, the paper based survey was emailed to them after the
completion of the semi structured interview. The survey was sent to these participants as a
Microsoft Word document and by a reply email, the participants completed the survey by
simply bolding the answers they selected.
Both forms of interviews were conducted with the use of nine open-ended questioned based on
Coakley (2001). The manner in which the questions were presented was in a
discussion/conversation format (the Interview guide is presented as Appendix D). This
technique was adopted to encourage a friendly atmosphere where the researcher and
participants could engage on a more personal level. In turn, by having the interviews conducted
as a discussion, the aim was to allow for the participant to be as comfortable as could be,
therefore answering each question to their best and honest ability.
The discussion was generated through a premeditated que by the researcher. When conducting
the interviews, key words and phrases from each of the nine questions were noted and these
key words and phrases were the source of the discussion with the participants. For the face to
face interviews, participants were asked for permission to record the interview as this helped
generating a transcript for analysis. For the telephone interviewees, whilst engaging in a
conversation with the participants, the researcher recorded, by hand, the relevant responses.
These notes taken by the researcher were used in the analysis of the data.
51. 37
The transcripts of the face to face interviews and the hand recorded notes of the telephone
interviews were analysed to identify common themes. These themes were then used in
conjunction with all the surveys to identify key motives and then used to help understand and
explain each motive. Themes were simply identified and grouped using a matrix and this
appears as Table 4.4.
3.3 Anticipated Obstacles
In planning the research and field work, a list of obstacles was drawn up in order to develop
contingencies for these events. This was done in order to plan for unforseen events or
circumstances that could have hindered the study.
3.3.1 Low Response Rate to the Online Survey
In anticipation that the online survey would not attract the desired n=150 responses, it was
decided to take whatever results were collected, and to use them towards the study. If this
occurred, then this would be mentioned in the limitations section and could also be the basis of
a suggestion for further research.
Another possibility was to extend the project for another semester, as this would have allowed
for more time and flexibility in the data collection process and analysis stages. However, this
approach was not possible.
3.3.2 Low Response Rate to Participate in the Interviews
Because the main supporter base for the NRL club was assessed to be outside New South
Wales and because the study was conducted within New South Wales, there were concerns
about the level of responses that the study would attract for the interview. With this in mind, if
the projected and desired n=10 participant level was not reached, similarly to the online survey,
any interviews that were conducted would be used in order to fulfil the objectives of the study,
in the best manner possible.
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As mentioned, if there was a low response rate to the face to face interviews, the researcher
would seek to conduct telephone interviews. Once these were complete, like the face to face
interviews, participants would be asked if they knew of anyone else who would be interested in
participating in the study. They would then be invited to supply the researcher with contact
details, and contact would be established through these means.
3.4 Encountered Obstacles
During the period in which the research and fieldwork were conducted, both predicted and
unplanned obstacles unfolded. Overall, the obstacles that occurred did not materially threaten
or hinder the outcome of the study. These obstacles are discussed in some detail below.
3.4.1 Late Ethics Approval
The ethics approval for the research was granted mid way through the year. The ethics
submission was handed to the respective body twice and this process of editing the application
and waiting for the response of the body was time consuming. Although not a major issue as
for the outcome of the research, this did set back the release date for the online survey and the
starting date for the interviews.
3.4.2 Online Survey Launch
In the initial stages of the research, the ideal period as to when the online survey was planned
to be launched was as soon as the ethics approval for the study was granted. Once the study
received ethics approval, the online survey was ready to be launched. However the NRL club
was in the closing stages of a re-structure and the survey launch was put on hold.
After this period, the NRL club then advised that it too was planning to release its own member
satisfaction survey. This took precedent over the online survey, and the club advised that an
NRL survey would also be conducted after the online survey for this study.
The set back to launching the online survey threatened the study in the sense that the time
available for the possibility of recruiting the desired numbers of participants was limited.
However, the online survey was launched mid September, which the members who chose to
