This is the first part of Ch. 1 of the book "Research Methods in Education: An Introduction". It tackles upon the nature of research and classification of educational research. The second part to be uploaded soon is on the role of theory, activities of the research process, and the function of educational research.

1. Damascus University
Higher Languages Institute
Research Methodology
Research Methods in Education: An Introduction
Educational Research: Its Nature and
Characteristics (chapter 1, part 1)
Professor: Ali Saud Hassan
Presented by: Abd Al-Rahman Al-Midani
January, 6th, 2014
Email: thedamascene@hotmail.com

2. Outline:

Introduction

The Nature of Research

Empiricism of Research

The Systematic Process of Research

Validity of Educational Research

Reliability of Educational Research

Research has many forms

Classification of Educational Research

Basic and Applied

General Methodology: Qualitative and Quantitative Research

3. Introduction:

Scholars and practitioners of various degrees of academic and professional
sophistication are involved in research.

Research is necessary for graduate students to go further in their education.

Research is conducted under many settings, durations and fundings.

Advances in all fields are attributed to research.

4. 
Graduate students are required to conduct researches to acquire a degree despite all
financial, expertise, and opportunity impediments.

It has been argued that the results of educational research will lead to the
improvement of educational practice; therefore, professional practitioners should
maintain a continued interest in research.

The results of educational research are reported in a way that requires a
knowledgeable person to read and implement them. In Research results are
important to make decisions.

5. 
Although educational research is complex and demanding, the broad spectrum of
research activities ranges from the simple, single operations to complex
combinations of qualitative and quantitative procedures.

Doing research is the only way to be competent in it; the researcher must be
skillful to carry out a research. He has to identify a problem, collect date, write a
report etc…

The results of research must always be subject to constructive criticism.

This chapter discusses the general procedures and methods; the practicing
researcher must project them into the specific situation.

6. Nature of Educational Research

The following characteristics are related in that, as a whole, they describe
the nature of research:
1.
Research is empirical;
2.
Research is systematic;
3.
Research should be valid;
4.
Research should be reliable;
5.
Research can take on a variety of forms.

7. 1. Research is Empirical:


Empiricism is the concept that all knowledge is derived from a sense
experience; this experience results in some information form—data– so that
knowledge can be generated upon it.
Researchers work upon data; this may involve organizing them, generating
hypotheses, testing them and so on.
2. Systematic Process of Research:


McMillan and Schumacher (1989) define research as “a systematic process for
collecting and analyzing information (data) for some purpose.” (P. 8)
Kerlinger defines scientific research as “systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses
about the presumed relations among such phenomena.” (P. 10)

8. 
To make research systematic, researchers use the approach of scientific inquiry and
scientific method.

Scientific Inquiry: search for knowledge through recognized methods of data collection,
analysis and interpretation.

Scientific Method: research process is considered to consist of a series of sequential
steps.

Scientific Method:
1)
Identifying a problem
The nature of the problem is to be defined; related knowledge is identified and a framework to
conduct the research is established. In addition, necessary assumptions and conditions are
also identified.
2)
Review information
The researcher reviews how others approached a similar problem; i.e. Literature review.

9. 3)
Data collection:
Collecting data requires a proper organization and control to validate the data to make decisions
upon them
4)
Data analysis:
Data analysis must be done in a manner appropriate to the problem.
5)
Drawing conclusions
Following data analysis, researchers draw conclusions and make generalizations based on the
data they had collected.
Educational research is systematic and within a broad framework follows the steps of the
scientific method. However, across different types of studies, there is extensive flexibility in
how the steps are implemented.

10. 3. The Validity of Educational Research:
Researches must be based on facts; i.e. capable to be justified. There are two concepts:
internal validity and external validity.

Internal Validity: it is the extent to which the results of a research can be interpreted
accurately and with confidence.
•
An Example of high internal validity:

11. 
External Validity: the extent to which research results can be generalized.

Internal validity is a prerequisite for external validity because if the results cannot be
interpreted accurately with confidence, researchers cannot generalize them.

An example of high external validity:
In a school district that has five elementary schools, a survey via telephone was
conducted on the perceptions of parents who have children studying in these schools;
the questions covered all point of interest to the schools. From each school, 25 parents
where chosen randomly. The total number is 125.
-
The population to which the results of this study are to be generalized is the population of
parents who have children in the five elementary schools.
-
It is unlikely to generalize the research to other schools that use other schools systems. If
done, an argument for similarity of parents must be provided.

12. An example of a research lacking external validity:
Only 25 parents of the intended 125 had been interviewed. Researchers cannot generalize
the results i.e. it lacks external validity.
External Validity is the extent to which results are generalizable to populations
and/or conditions.

Generalizability does not mean that the study must be generalized to many various
situations and populations; external validity, rather, depends upon the conditions and
purposes of the specific research study.

It is impossible to reach perfect internal and external validity; researchers must work
to reach a balance so that results can be interpreted with confidence and still have
some useful generalizability.

13. 4. The Reliability of Educational Research:
Reliability refers to the consistency of the research and the extent to which studies can be
replicated.
1.
Internal reliability refers to the extent that data collection, analysis, and interpretation
are consistent under the same conditions.
-
If internal reliability is lacking, the data becomes a function of who collected them rather
than what actually happened.
2.
External reliability deals with the issue of whether or not independent researchers can
replicate studies in the same or similar settings with consistent results.

14. 
Good description of procedures and conditions is necessary to replicate researches.

Reliability is a necessary characteristic for validity; a study cannot be valid unless it is
reliable. If it is unreliable, results cannot be interpreted with confidence and cannot be
generalized.

Reliability + validity = credibility of research
Reliability of research concerns the replicability and consistency of the methods,
conditions, and results.
5. Research has a Variety of Forms
Different forms or types of research involve classification systems.

15. Classification of Educational Research
Two systems are described: one based on the goal of the research, and another on the way
in which the research is conducted.
Basic and Applied Research
Applied Research
Basic Research
-
Purpose: solve an immediate, practical
problem;
-
Purpose: adding to the existing body of
knowledge in a discipline;
-
It may contribute to the general knowledge of
some field as it produces a solution for a
specific problem. (supplemental purpose).
-
Although not ruled out, basic research
does not necessarily provide results of
immediate practical use (supplemental
purpose).

16. 
Basic and applied research are important; they should not be differentiated by
hierarchy of value judgments; instead, the purpose of research is the criterion.
An example of Basic Research:
-
An experiment on learning in a laboratory setting. The purpose of the experiment is to
contribute to the knowledge about how learning takes place.
An example of Applied Research:
-
A curriculum committee is surveying elementary school teachers about materials of
reading programs. The results of the survey would provide the necessary information
for deciding which program to adopt.

17. Misconceptions
1.
Basic research is complex and applied research is simple in methodology.
2.
Whereas applied research carried out by unsophisticated practitioners, basic
research is carried out by abstract impractical thinkers.
3.
While applied research is often sloppy and haphazard but of a great practical
value, basic research is precise and exacting but of little or no value in real
situations.
Basic research and Applied research are differentiated by their purpose. The
primary purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge; the purpose of
applied research is the solution of an immediate, practical problem.

18. Action Research

Action research is one type of applied research. It is conducted by a professional educator
to aid in making decisions in local schools.

Since it is local, there is concern upon generalizing its results to other educational settings.
Teachers are curious about their own practices rather than generalizing the outcomes.

Action research is less rigorous in terms of methodology and design than other educational
research.

Action research + research literature = viable approach to making educational decisions at
local level.
Action research is usually conducted by teachers, or other educational professionals for
solving a specific problem, or for providing information for decision making at local level.

19. Evaluation

In addition to applied and basic research, McMillan and Schumacher (1989) include a third category
of evaluative research or evaluation.

Briefly, evaluation is close to applied research. Its function is assessing a practice or program in a
certain situation. Application of its results aids in decision making in a specific situation as is the
case in applied research.
General Methodology: Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Krathwohl defined them as (1993), “Qualitative research: research that describes phenomena in
words instead of numbers or measures… Quantitative research: research that describes phenomena
in numbers and measures instead of words (P. 740)”

In terms of conducting research, the difference between them is not a dichotomy but a qualitativequantitative continuum.

20. Qualitative Research

Its origins lay in the descriptive
analysis.

It is essentially an inductive
process; reasoning from the
specific situation to a general
conclusion.
Quantitative Research

It is closely associated with
deduction; reasoning from
general principles to specific
situations.

21. Epistemological differences:
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research


It has its roots in positivism, and
it is more closely associated
with the scientific method than
the qualitative research.

The emphasis is on facts,
relationships, and causes.

Quantitative researchers place
great value on the outcomes and
products
It follows the naturalist
paradigm.

It is a holistic interpretation of the
natural settings.

Qualitative researchers have great
concern for the impact of the
process as well as the outcomes.
Typically, they are concerned
with that more than the
quantitative research

22. Comments on theory
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research

Inductive; it does not emphasize a
theoretical base for whatsoever is
studied at the beginning of the
research.

Deductive; it tends to be more
theory based from the beginning.

Theory may develop, be changed,
or dropped as the research
progresses.

When theory-testing research is
done, it is likely to be quantitative.

If a theory develops based on the
data, a “grounded theory” emerges.
It is based on the data rather than
prior notions or ideas.

Theory not necessarily identified
explicitly, but theory does exist in a
way or another.

If no theory emerges, research is
atheoritical, and it retains its
descriptive value.

23. Context
Qualitative Research



Context-specific; the role of the
researcher is one of inclusion in
the process.
Smith (1987) indicates,
“qualitative research is based on
the notion of context sensitivity…
the particular physical and social
environment has great bearing on
human behavior.”
Qualitative research emphasizes a
holistic interpretation; facts and
values are inextricably mixed.
Quantitative Research

Context-free generalizations.

Quantitative research is much
willing to focus on individual
variables and factors rather than
on a holistic interpretation.
Quantitative researchers separate
facts and values.

24. Standards and design
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research

Qualitative Researchers are
more flexible once they start
their research.

It is more attuned to
standardized research
procedures and predetermined
designs.

Qualitative Research involves
multiple methods more
frequently than the quantitative
research.

Qualitative Research involves
less multiple methods than the
qualitative research.

It relies heavily on statistical
results represented with
numbers.

It relies heavily on narrative
description.

25. Purpose
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research


It is done to understand a social
phenomenon.
It is done to determine
relationships, effects, and causes.
In education, both types are valuable and can be supportive of each
other in understanding the many factors that impact education.

26. 
From a practical point of view, qualitative and quantitative procedures
are often mixed; however, their methodologies can be placed on the
continuum– not on dichotomy–as they tend towards the qualitative or
quantitative.

27. THANK YOU VERY MUCH