1. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 1
Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children with Parents Whom Have or Suffered from
Maladaptive Parental or Maternal Attachment
Carrie M Carstens-Ritter
PSYC3500
Learning and Cognition
Capella University
March 13, 2015

2. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 2
Introduction
Learning disabilities first came to light in the late 1800’s around the same time mandatory
schooling was put into place in several countries. It was not until the mid-1960’s that nonverbal
learning disabilities began to be seen as separate from other verbal disabilities and behaviors, and
a study found that “some children that were able to learn to read and write had continual issues
arise in their right-left brain orientation; they also had problems in math and problem solving, as
well as comprehension of many daily social interactions (Johnson, & Myklebust, 1967; Spreen,
2011).” These children especially had problems which could be described as relating to how
their brains functioned and did, or did not, attempt to process such functions relating to verbal,
social-nonverbal, and nonsocial-nonverbal activity (Johnson, & Myklebust, 1967). Many
children with such nonverbal learning disabilities have parents that have had maladaptive or
negative attachment issues with either someone in their past or during childhood; which may be
the product of generational maladaptive behavioral issues and/or abuse. Children in such
conditions have many brain functions that cause substantial learning problems which have a
tendency to be difficult to diagnose at times (Forbes, 1987).

3. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 3
Possibly NLD, How Could It Be?
It is these children that seemingly are “so much smarter than their older brother”, “do so well on
tests”, and are “such a joy to have in class”, yet have a general social aloofness about them at the
same time. One main reason behind this is because the child is usually able to do so well in rote
rehearsal from a very early age, like memorizing studies in the classroom; that parents are at first
not able to see that many social skills tend to lag, or that the child has any learning disability
whatsoever (Forbes, 1987). Verbal and nonverbal learning skills begin in the womb and correlate
well with Bowlby’s attachment theory (1982). When we begin to look backwards at attachment
theory, and how generations of particular forms of mental and emotional forms of abuse and
patterns were created and recreated over and over, a better understanding of some forms of
nonverbal learning disorder are gained. As an infant, if emotional abuse has been present, more
often than naught, a history of insecure attachments may have a tendency to “impair emotional
regulation and foster negative internal working models of self and others that initiate and sustain
negative coping responses (Riggs, 2010).” In short, it’s usually a circle of negativity that
continues to cycle unless an intervention and cognitive change to break the cycle occurs. Many
adults that have negative coping responses and impaired emotional regulation suffer, or have
suffered from, some sort of insecure attachment or another in their past, causing maladaptive
behaviors they may not even realize are present, which are being fostered into their child’s ideals
of how a parent is to act, or be.
Problem Statement and ResearchQuestion
A young adult that has a nonverbal learning disorder (NLD) and whom suffers insecure
attachment history may try their best to tell you that they just do not understand how to

4. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 4
understand facial expressions, nonverbal cues, breaks in speech, or sarcasm, and may be seen as
distant, rude, emotionally unavailable, and also aggravated or even emotionally and verbally
aggressive at times, while becoming agitated at their inability to comprehend cues. They may not
realize when a conversation should be over or if the clerk at the store was joking around; just like
an individual may not grasp another person feeling annoyed, or being in pain. Many have close
friends or relatives that they tend to turn to when they are unable to explain their behaviors to
others in an appropriate manner. While NLD shares many characteristics with Asperger’s
syndrome and other emotional disorders, it differentiates itself by having it’s own distinguishing
set of characteristics including, but certainly not limited, to children who…
“Have trouble recognizing nonverbal cues such as facial expression or body language;
Show poor psychomotor coordination; are clumsy; seems to be constantly “getting in the
way,”
and bumping into people and objects;
Sometimes find fine motor skills a challenge: tying shoes, writing, using scissors;
Need to verbally label everything that happens to comprehend circumstances, spatial
orientation, directional concepts and coordination; are often lost or tardy;
Have difficulty coping with changes in routing and transitions;
Have difficulty generalizing previously learned information;
Have difficulty following multi-step instructions;
Make very literal translations;
Ask too many questions, may be repetitive and inappropriately interrupt the flow of a
lesson;

5. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 5
Impart the “illusion of competence” because of the student’s strong verbal skills
(Learning
Disabilities Association of America, 2015).”
Is it possible that these children, that have little or no fear, danger avoidance, or humility
reactions, were themselves emotionally traumatized as an infant, by the result of a lack of secure
attachment, or through parental withholding of praise, reward, accomplishment or love? Are
these lack of skills due to more biological factors such as right hemisphere brain disorders,
instead? Perhaps both, as it incorporates not only motor skills, but visual-spatial-organizational
skills and qualities, as well as social constructs on several levels, which should be noticeable at a
young age but are usually overshadowed by such excellent rote skills (Thompson, 1996)? It is
possible that “a nonverbal learning disability (could) be caused by damage, disorder or
destruction of neuronal white matter in the brain's right hemisphere and (the child may possibly
be) experiencing a wide range of neurological diseases such as hydrocephalus or other types of
brain injury (Harnadek & Rourke 1994).”
Or;
Or, could it be that all of these problems possibly stem from a mother that had a poor initial
attachment with her infant due to her own lack of attachment to her caregiver(s) as a child and
was therefore neglected herself (emotionally, at the least, through assumption and conclusion of
readings only) which created its own set of emotional trauma, scarring, and insecurity, that may
have been passed on to her own child through DNA and neural pathways, as well as generational
cycling of trauma, internal attachment history problems, high levels of parenting stress, and the
effects on the child of such distress? All are very plausible explanations and studies show much

6. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 6
interest in the category; because truth be told, there is not one, single, valid reason a child is
diagnosed with NLD. There are many possible factors and approachable onsets of NLD, but it is
a fact that several children diagnosed with NLD have had mothers that were also diagnosed with
hormonal regulation difficulties which resulted in a lack of “caregiving motivation” through part
of pregnancy which continued postpartum (Maestripieri, 2001). So, does maternal stress or
emotional inadequacy of parents or caregivers play a larger role than first believed in children
diagnosed with NLD? It is believed that it does. Mothers with higher stress levels have children
that also feel the repercussions of those stressful feelings while also being more likely to suffer
from ADHD (their parents more than likely had an attention deficit related disorder as well,
whether diagnosed or not; there is a general higher possibility of disorders such as OCD, ADD,
etc. through bloodline) and interventions including cognitive, behavioral and emotional
management, as well as individual therapies and inclusive training groups (Antshel, & Joseph,
2006).
Significance in ResearchQuestion; Differentiation of Emotionally Disturbed vs NLD
If there was a possibility of further educating parents that had insecure attachments themselves;
to increase their knowledge of the chance that their offspring has a significantly higher chance of
developing an NLD, parents could not only be more aware of the signs (which at times are not
noticed due to other, more exemplary, well done and rehearsed activities, perhaps), but enable
stress reduction techniques to ease their own psychological fears and tendencies about dealing
with such disorders so their children can be diagnosed at an earlier age. Since parental stress is a
very high indicator for emotional maternal traits when dealing with a new infant, such things as
“affect, mood, daily hassles, socioeconomic status (SES), and even age, play very large factors in

7. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 7
how bonding and attachment will occur; and if it does, how does one know if it will it be on a
level consistent enough for the needs of the infant (Antshel, & Joseph, 2006)? One can only do
their personal, known best, in regards to attending to the needs of their child; and having a
positive self-concept and self-regard will enable more positive parenting skills, in most cases.
Further education about NLD and maternal stress play a large role in encouraging parents to
receive mental or emotional help when they are feeling unstable or having disabling moods that
may be disparaging to themselves or their newborn to ensure they may have a more stable
attachment with their child than they had with their parent or caregiver during infancy or
childhood.
Can We Differentiate Between Children with NLD and Emotionally Disturbed Youth?
Adults that have children suffering from an NLD can more than likely recall an instance where
their emotions got the better of them in a situation and it did not turn out accordingly, as
communication was more than likely blocked due to emotional trauma exerting itself. Children
that have NLD seem to have less emotion than “normal” children, yet it is more the fact that they
just do not possess the skills to act accordingly to such emotions and do not realize “how they are
supposed to feel or act” when these emotions arise (Forbes, 1987). In differentiating between
cases of youth with NLD and those of emotionally disturbed youth, cases must be researched
thoroughly and examined from a critical emotional standpoint since both disorders display
similar characteristics and children's response to nonverbal stimuli in either case is not always
properly understood. Children with characteristics such as “higher attachment disruptions... may
play a more critical role in the emergence of child psychopathology and future work should
assess such disruptions in order to further our ability to understand and treat serious adjustment

8. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 8
difŽculties in children and adolescents (Kobak, Little, Race, & Acosta, 2001).” Adaptation is
crucial in child development and when attachments are disorganized and insecure, it is difficult
for a child to find one with whom to have a strong, safe, secure attachment to when a parent is
unavailable emotionally, or otherwise disassociated (Kobak, Little, Race, & Acosta, 2001).
Dissociative symptoms in emotionally traumatized distraught, abused, or deficit-ed youth,
children, and adolescents can include: Impaired behavior and obvious emotional deficits,
traumatic attachment deficits or profound extension of emotional need toward a person, object,
or thing, and empirical studies have shown there are “certain recurrent, observable symptoms of
problem behavior in children and these symptoms tend to cluster into two major syndromes, or
symptom-clusters, known as “conduct problems” and “personality problems (Quay, 1963)”.
Emotionally traumatized youth would benefit greatly from educational programs that are
designed to accommodate their distinctive educational and emotional goals and needs (Quay,
1963). When praise and punishment are used in an appropriate manner, it has been shown
children respond well, and paired reward/punishment stimuli can be used in effective learning
techniques as well, when emotional responses tend to be inadequate for the situation at hand.
Emotionally traumatized youth can be effectively counseled and obtain the ability to maintain
and function within normal relationships once they are accepting of their past trauma, recognize
signs and symptoms of its return (possibly), and work toward continued positive emotional
growth and self-sufficiency and salience.
Children With Nonverbal Learning Disorder

9. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 9
While above average skills in vocabulary output, speaking, and verbiage in youth may be
primarily memorized bits of information, children that are affected with NLD may not
comprehend the information he or she are able to recite and therefore may find themselves in
situations at times where their verbal skills are of no help to them (Matte & Bolaski, 1998);
emotional distortion may occur at this time and as a negative affect or mood change begins to
dominate- recognizing and identifying the precursor and trigger is important in solving the
problem and understanding that lack of empathy may (or may not) occur at times (Riggs, 2010).
Activities to increase “oral activity, active reading strategies, and instructional efforts to cultivate
the skills necessary to disclose and acknowledge their personality not only to themselves, but
also to others, in an effort to advance feelings of self-worth and awareness, as well as the acute
sense of understanding when clarity and directness are revealed in communication as something
one is good at, rather than having the impediment of a disability are helpful (Matte, & Bolaski,
1998).” Visual aids and rehearsal may be valuable to these children. Other strategies that could
be used involve:
“Rehearsal in getting from place to place;
Minimizing transitions and giving several verbal cues before transition;
Avoid assuming the child will automatically generalize instructions or concepts;
Verbally point out similarities, differences and connections; number and present
instructions in
sequence;
Simplify and break down abstract concepts, explain metaphors, nuances and multiple
meanings
in reading material;

10. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 10
Allow the child to abstain from participating in activities at signs of overload;
Thoroughly prepare the child in advance for field trips, family outings, day trips, or other
changes, regardless of how minimal;
Implement a modified schedule to provide encouraging stimulation throughout the day;
And, never assume the child understands something because he or she can “parrot back”
what
you’ve just said, remember to offer added verbal explanations when the child
seems lost or registers confusion (Learning Disabilities Association of America,
2015).”
Report of ResearchFindings
It has certainly been shown within the research findings that maternal distress can play a very
large role in one’s own maladaptive attachment history throughout the course of their lifetime
and individuals that have been emotionally abused and/or neglected do have, within reason, a
higher chance of having a child with a nonverbal learning disorder, but mainly at the rate as any
other couple has of having a child with NLD. Children that had a lack of attachment with their
parents and/or caregivers were more likely to be depressed at a younger age and used more
adaptation skills and less “reality” skills and representations in a study done (Toth, Rogosch,
Sturge-Apple, & Cicchetti, 2009). There is a very high chance of mothers who have been
previously emotionally abused or neglected to bear child to infants and have a lack of maternal
compassion, which has been shown to have a subsequent effect on the child, maternal
depression is usually present in as well, along with other maladaptations (Toth, Rogosch, Sturge-
Apple, & Cicchetti, 2009). Toth and his fellow researchers firmly believed that there was a

11. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 11
“quality of attachment in offspring, and children’s representations of parents and of the self
suggest that maternal depression may initiate a developmental process whereby negative
adaptation in one domain may adversely affect functioning in another domain (2009).”
NLD Has Several Theories and Truths
There are brain functions relating to organization and transfer (just to name a couple) that affect
children suffering from NLD. The right side of the brain does more processing of many things
and enables us to comprehend and understand gestures, know faces, recognize symbols, and is
more complex; while the left side is left to take care of such things as speech, auditory, and
language processing, and how to understand visual images and information (Rissman, 2011).
“Although not clinically useful, it is a certain fact that learning disabled children without
emotional problems and emotionally disturbed children without learning problems present with
very different symptoms, and they are readily distinguishable; they just need to be objectively
distinguished rather than seen as a single problem (Forbes, 1987).” Children with NLD
incorporated with parental attachment history problems have had brains scans that showed “mild
abnormalities in the right cerebral hemisphere revealing that kids with NLD that have seen a
clinician at one point or another, may have attained a substantial head injury, repeated radiation
treatments near their head for periods of time, been born without the corpus callosum, have been
previously treated for hydrocephalus, or had an amount of brain tissue removed from the right
side of their brain (Thompson, 1996),” among any other number of reasons.

12. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 12
These previous reasons lead researchers to believe that white matter in the brain has destructed
and since this matter is needed for both sides of the brain to report to each other (inter-modal)
and function together effectively, damage to this white matter may cause the left side of the brain
to function on it’s own, which leads to and incorporates all symptoms of NLD, while at times
resembling a patient that has had a head injury, both in how he acts and the behaviors elicited
(Thompson, 1996). Maternal attachment can be difficult when it is a chore to communicate with
or care for one’s own offspring, especially when underlying brain structure or neural pathway
errors may be to blame for emotional traumas and nonverbal learning disorders related to
parental attachment or detachment.
It is much more difficult for children to regulate their emotions when the complex world around
them is surrounded by, and with, adults that leave them with unclear intentions and unregulated
emotions; it makes it increasingly more difficult for children to thrive as they have no emotional
understanding of certain feelings or affect, usually only such things as abuse, failure, trauma, or
distress (Riggs, 2010). In children with NLD, regardless of contraction, it is important to create a
few inclinations towards desire and behavioral control to make school a more comfortable and
educational environment as several children with NLD have been teased for being different,
which opens up another realm of research altogether (Kobak, Little, Race, & Acosta, 2001).
There have been associations of emotionally abused and traumatized parents that have children
diagnosed as having NLD that are able to associate and communicate well. However, it is
expected that there may be times where there just may not be a good enough explanation, or an
explanation at all. In any and all circumstances, it is just important to keep in mind, children are

13. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 13
just that, children; and as long as we remain in communication and have some sort of attachment
or bond, most major emotional traumas can be avoided it seems. When caring for children that
have had serious traumatic experiences, it is going to very important to know the correct way to
differentiate between children with nonverbal learning disorders and with emotional traumas and
be able to cognitively and effectively treat each in an ethical manner.
Discussion, Recommendation, Conclusions
New mothers that had higher levels of the hormone estradiol in their systems while pregnant and
after their child’s birth reported having “higher feelings of attachment to their children in the
days following birth and their maternal experience was an exceptionally better way to gauge the
differences in maternal responsiveness than was hormones (Maestripieri, 2001).” As new
mothers attend to their infants, internal and external attachments occur between the two, in most
cases. If a maternal instinct does not arise, those attachments may be hindered, or maladaptive,
through infant attachment formations of bonds with other people or things. Nonverbal language
disorders occur at times in children that have “social and psychological concerns, which are
usually noticed previous to any school problems. Children with such disorders are susceptible to
such things as an imbalance or lack of social and thinking skills, noticeable lack of peer relations,
a lack of empathy or social judgement, and a history of unusual thinking, including ritualistic and
routine behaviors (Dinklage, 2014).” A diagnosis of NLD can cause even more problems as a
child grows while his brain may have to learn and relearn items such as “remembering” past
events and regaining the structure of those past events to work through present events of the

14. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 14
same accord, not unlike having “sea legs” and relearning how to walk straight after many days
off land (Thompson, 1996).
All research and evidential findings show that there is no way we can discount the fact that there
have been cases where maternal stress and the emotional inadequacy of parents or caregivers
play a role in children that have been clinically diagnosed with NLD (Riggs, 2010). Studies have
also shown that mothers that were depressed had “children that had negative representations of
themselves (Toth, Rogosch, Sturge-Apple, & Cicchetti, 2009).” Insecure attachments at this age
are more than likely to cause problems later in life due to lack of positive role models, poor
responses to stress, lack of coping strategies, and lack of behavioral management; these are all
problems many children with NLD face daily (Riggs, 2010). In children with NLD, many
problems can be worked through and alleviated by talking through them. When emotional stress
causes “high levels of anxious arousal, resulting in an escalation of defenses, maladaptive
behaviors, vulnerability to cognitive disorganization and the formation of dissociated
contradictory mental models, and theoretically, the particular manifestation of emotional and
behavioral disturbance will depend to a large extent on the predominant attachment strategy
previously adopted by the individual (Riggs, 2010).” There are several theories of how an
individual comes to attain NLD, and several factors associated with this emotional learning
disorder. Parents of NLD children can benefit both themselves and their child by forming secure
attachments and bonding with their children while in utero, and as they grow.

15. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 15
References
Antshel, K. M., & Joseph, G. (2006). Maternal Stress in Nonverbal Learning Disorder: A
Comparison
With Reading Disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 194-205.
doi:10.1177/00222194060390030101
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal Of
Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664-678. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x
Dinklage, D. (2014). AANE - Aspergers Disorder and Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities.
Retrieved
February 1, 2015 from
http://www.aane.org/asperger_resources/articles/miscellaneous/asperger_nonverbal_learn
ing.html
Forbes, G. B. (1987). Personality Inventory for Children: Characteristics of Learning-Disabled
Children

16. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 16
With Emotional Problems and of Emotionally Disturbed Children With Learning
Problems. Journal Of Clinical Child Psychology, 16(2), 133. - Retrieved March 3, 2015
from
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.library.capella.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f8c2f09c-
cbfa-49a1-b73e-96dba8751f74%40sessionmgr4002&vid=1&hid=4101
Kobak, R., Little, M., Race, E., & Acosta, M. C. (2001). Attachment disruptions in seriously
emotionally disturbed children: Implications for treatment. Attachment & Human
Development, 3(3), 243-258. doi:10.1080/14616730110096861)
Maestripieri, D. (2001). Biological Bases of Maternal Attachment. Current Directions In
Psychological Science (Wiley-Blackwell), 10(3), 79-83.
Matte, R. R., & Bolaski, J. A. (1998). Nonverbal learning disabilities: An overview. Intervention
In
School & Clinic, 34(1), 39.
Quay, H. C. (1963). Some Basic Considerations in the Education of Emotionally Disturbed
Children.
Exceptional Children, 30(1), 27-31.
Riggs, S. A. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse and the attachment system across the life cycle:
What
theory and research tell us. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(1), 5-51.
Rissman, B. (2011). Nonverbal Learning Disability Explained: The Link to Shunted
Hydrocephalus.
British Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 39(3), 209-215.

17. Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children 17
Thompson, S. (1996). Nonverbal Learning Disorders | LD Topics | LD OnLine. Retrieved March
2,
2015 from http://www.ldonline.org/article/6114/
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Sturge-Apple, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Maternal Depression,
Children’s Attachment Security, and Representational Development: An Organizational
Perspective. Child Development, 80(1), 192-208. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01254.x