1. Calvin Judd
COM8199
MA Media and Public Relations
B5056626
Title:
Owned Media 2.0: Brand Journalism and Reputation Management
Through Online Corporate Publishing
Submission Date:
31st August 2016
Word Count:
12594 words
I declare that this assignment is my own work and that I have correctly
acknowledged the work of others. This assignment is in accordance with
University and School guidance on good academic conduct (and how to avoid
plagiarism and other assessment irregularities). University guidance is available
at www.ncl.ac.uk/right-cite
2. 2
Abstract
Digital and social media have opened countless doors for PR, presenting new
ways for brands to communicate with their publics. Simultaneously, the
disintegration of traditional media has brought about historic changes to the
news landscape. Brand Journalism is a natural reaction to these momentous
changes and provides companies with a direct, authentic and transparent means
of communicating with their publics. Disintermediation means brands no longer
need to rely on the media middleman to create mutual understanding and
influence opinion. Public trust in traditional media is falling, while trust in
business is rising, though skepticism surrounds business as a source of news.
While traditional and earned media will always play a pivotal role in PR strategy,
the PR practitioner of tomorrow must acquire news skills in order provide real
value.
3. 3
Acknowledgments
I’d firstly like to thank Sally Keith, my dissertation supervisor, for sharing her
seemingly limitless knowledge with me, overseeing and guiding me through
what was an incredibly demanding piece of research. Her input and opinion was
truly invaluable. I’d also like to express my gratitude to all those who took the
time to fill in surveys and respond to interview requests. Last but not least, my
friends, family and girlfriend, who provided wine when necessary and offered
‘expertise’ when none was needed.
5. 5
List of Figures
Fig.1 Research outline 8
Fig.2 Case study ratings 33
Fig.3 Gender chart 43
Fig.4 Age chart 44
Fig.5 Location chart 45
Fig.6 Media consumption chart 46
Fig.7 Media trust chart 47
Fig.8 Factor of influence chart 48
Fig.9 Trust in business chart 49
Fig.10 Incentivised by branded content chart 50
Fig.11 Lickert scale stacked bar chart 51
Fig.12 Trust in traditional media chart 51
Fig.13 Brand journalism awareness chart 53
6. 6
1.1 Introduction
“The previous barrier between brands and their audience that was created by
the media as we knew it has now eroded.”
Waddington & Earl (2012:84)
Communication is at the heart of public relations. For Cooley (1909:61),
communication is the “mechanism through which human relations exist and
develop.” It is through communication and discourse that influence can be
enacted and mutual understanding generated. Indeed, the rise of digital and
social media has opened new doors and opportunities for organisations to
communicate with their audiences.
Since its inception in the early 1900s, earned media has been seen as the
bedrock of PR practice. However, web 2.0 and social media have given birth to
new ways for businesses to interact with stakeholders, with brands being able to
communicate with their audiences online without an intermediary. While third
party opinion can certainly not be dismissed as a tool of influence, the ability to
speak both immediately and personally is invaluable. The Internet is now filled
with brands competing with one and other to be heard; brand journalism offers
an opportunity for organisations to communicate with stakeholders directly and
authentically, while using editorial integrity to ensure discourse is both credible
and compelling. This monumental change in the digital landscape has brought
about what can be referred to as Owned Media 2.0. Just as Web 2.0 signaled the
shift to more dynamic, interconnected and social online communities, Owned
Media 2.0 represents the transition from static to more direct, personal,
authentic and social relationships between brands and their audiences through
engaging journalistic content.
As Elmer states, “public relations is storytelling” (2011:47). Brand
journalism allows organisations to tell their own story using their own voice,
without having to rely on pitching hyperbolic press releases a fragmented media.
This void left behind by the ever-thinning traditional media presents a huge
opportunity for brands to use the expertise and resource within their
organisation and translate it into branded content that gives value to
stakeholders.
7. 7
1.2 Research questions
This study will provide an analysis of how and why businesses are increasingly
turning to brand journalism in in their PR strategies and creating their own
online editorial content, targeting three key questions:
1. In what ways are brands assimilating the traditional media hierarchy and
employing owned media to deliver compelling content directly to their publics?
2. Why are some brands shifting from a reliance on earned to owned media in
order to assert their reputation and influence their publics?
3. In what ways could this have an impact on the profession and the future of PR?
1.4 Significance
The media and digital landscape is ever evolving, with new platforms,
communities and technologies being born seemingly everyday. Consequently,
the ways in which brands can communicate are changing everyday and brand
journalism is one of the most profound and exciting disciplines to be established
as a result. Moreover, current academic literature concerning brand journalism
is sparse and further exploration is vitally needed. While owned media and
content marketing has been the subject of widespread academic investigation,
brand journalism, as subset of these two, has been somewhat overlooked. This
thesis aims to negotiate the reasons why brands are choosing to implement
brand journalism as part of their strategy and also how they are doing so. In
doing so it will make a beneficial contribution to the PR profession, while
providing much needed academic insight into the field of brand journalism.
1.5 Research outline
This research project will be structured in to eight chapters (fig.1). The literature
review will explore existing research and current debates on owned media,
social media, corporate image, influence and consumer-brand trust, while
negotiating the underpinning theories of PR and reputation management. An
overview of the methodologies behind the research will be given, highlighting
the reasons behind the particular methods of data collection, the implications of
choosing such methods and the ethical considerations. Case studies of brands
8. 8
employing brand journalism as part of their PR strategy will then be assessed.
This will be followed by a discussion and analysis of the qualitative and
quantitative data collected from the online questionnaire and expert interviews.
Conclusions will be drawn and an overarching evaluation of the research will be
given, before making recommendations and spotlighting potential new
directions of study.
Fig.1
Introduction
Methodologies
Quantitative Research
Literature Review
IntroductionConclusions
Recommendations
Qualitative Research
Case Studies
Online Questionnaire Opinion Leader Interviews
9. 9
2.1 Literature review
As a relatively new phenomenon, brand journalism has seldom been the subject
of comprehensive scrutiny in PR literature. This chapter will navigate the current
debates that exist concerning brand journalism and owned media, while
consulting the bedrock theories of reputation management and influence in PR.
2.2 Public relations and reputation
The Chartered Institute of Public Relations explains that the primary object of
public relations is to look after reputation by “establish[ing] and maintain[ing]
goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics”
(CIPR, 2016). Accordingly, reputation is a product of “what you do, what you say
and what others say about you” (CIPR, 2016). In order to achieve understanding,
PR programmes must “help publics become more knowledgeable about [a]
company and its perspectives” (Baines et al. 2005:10), by employing paid,
earned, shared and owned (PESO) tools to communicate and build trust.
This PESO model, championed by Deitrich (2014:37), maps the different
channels brands employ to influence opinion and create trust. PR has typically
been concerned with the earned aspect of this model, with Waddington and Earl
(2012:11) agreeing that “PR still ‘lives’ in the editorial world [and] that is how it
has its influence on reputation.” On the other hand, Stareva (2015) explains that
trust is the base from which the best relationships are formed and as a result
organisations must use owned media to directly communicate with stakeholders
to inform them who they are, what their business is about and the value it can
offer them.
Furthermore, to build a reputation and form relationships an organisation
must aim to change attitudes through communication. The shift from a ‘negative
situation’ to a ‘positive achievement’ through better understanding, for Jefkins
(1995, in Gurau, 2007:290), is the primary aim of PR. The transfer process model
maps how hostility, prejudice, apathy and ignorance are relayed into feelings of
interest, acceptance, sympathy and ultimately empathy, by earning
understanding and influencing opinion. Owned media, as a tool that
communicates directly with stakeholders, has the ability to foster relationships
by creating interest in a brand through informative and engaging content. As a
10. 10
result, this interest can be harnessed to provide clear, undiluted information to
create mutual understanding.
2.2.1 The Business of Influence
Reputation is a product of influence and only through influencing opinions and
behaviors can an organisation earn understanding. As a concept, influence is
inherently complex; it functions on multiple levels, both consciously and
unconsciously. Sheldrake (2013:20) explains that “you have been influenced
when you do something you wouldn’t otherwise have done, or think something
you wouldn’t otherwise have thought.” However, for Sheldrake (2012), the
typical “paid-earned-owned taxonomy” is increasingly irrelevant to PR and the
ways in which organisations influence their publics. He views it as a hindrance to
what should really be a focus on the Six Influence Flows (2011). Influence is not
just a medium enacted on stakeholders by an organisation, but rather something
that is enacted onto an organisation as a result of stakeholders – it is a two-way
flow.
It is only by placing the Six Influence Flows (see appendix 1) at the heart
of an organisation that that it becomes “influence-centric” (Sheldrake, 2012). In
order to be heard by their stakeholders, Sheldrake (2011b) argues that brands
must listen back and “sharpen their ability to interpret and respond to the
myriad communication flows issuing from all sides.” This process of
communication and influence draws upon Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models
of public relations - specifically two-way symmetric communication. This model
highlights the importance of listening to stakeholders and striving toward a
model of excellence where by an organisation changes its behaviour and uses
communication to promote goodwill and understanding.
2.2.2 Corporate image
Reputation is determined by how an organisation is perceived – it is not
something that is owned by the company, but rather something that is produced
by stakeholders. Ultimately, what a company does, says and what others say
about it fortifies a corporate image. Dowling (1986:110) defines corporate image
as:
11. 11
“The set of meanings by which [a brand/company] is known and through
which people describe, remember and relate to it. This is the result of the
interaction of a persons beliefs, ideas, feeling and impressions about [it].”
Corporate image plays a role in the long-term production of corporate
reputation. In today’s competitive market, reputation is central to the long-term
success of an organisation for Davies et al. (2003). Moreover, from a business
perspective, “a positive corporate image adds value to the organization by
encouraging favourable associations,” allows “consumers to differentiate
between organizations,” while driving “customer satisfaction, customer
retention, customer loyalty, perceived service quality, as well as perceived value”
(Mostafa et.al. 2015:468).
2.3 Toward a definition of brand journalism
Much like PR, definitions of brand journalism are diverse and vary somewhat
between sources. As a discipline it is a work in progress, making it difficult to
accurately define. Zelm (2014) insists, “brand journalism takes many forms and
isn’t always easily defined.” Buttry (2015:69) shares this confusion, explaining
that “strategic communications professionals and traditional journalists are
trying to figure out what brand journalism is (and whether that’s what they
should call it).” Andy Bull brings some substance to the term, explaining that
“brand journalism it a hybrid form of traditional journalism, marketing and
public relations” (2013:1). Meanwhile, Ann Hadley (2014) notes “brand
journalists bring a reporter’s sensibility to your content—an editorial approach
to building a brand.” Therefore, brand journalism is the systematic approach of
using editorial techniques, such as reporting and objective storytelling, to
produce authentic and compelling content to engage, inform and communicate
with stakeholders.
There has been much debate over the term brand journalism in recent
years, primarily in relation to its precursor: content marketing. Despite often
being used as interchangeably, the two are entirely different approaches to
strategic brand communication. In order to be successful, Lofgren (2014:10)
stresses that brand journalism must have authenticity at is core. It has specific
attributes that make it distinctive from content marketing, including:
12. 12
“Editorial style and a journalistic mindset
Entertains, inspires and influences
Builds relationships
Engages audiences without being promotional
Tells vs. sells” (Lofgren 2014:10)
Unlike content marketing, there is no direct sales push in brand journalism.
Instead, there is a focus on quality news and reporting that brings value to
readers. Ramlochan (2015) also argues that content marketing “increase[s]
product demand by providing useful information,” whereas brand journalism
“find[s] and tell[s] stories that convey the ‘brand’s personality.”
For Baetzgen and Tropp (2013:7), “journalistic principles must be taken
into account” when employing brand journalism, “to ensure the brand presents
itself transparently and clearly as the sender of the communication – and not as a
hidden placement.” Traditional journalism has long been seen an independent
source of objective and balanced news, and the prospect of brands utilising a
journalistic approach to manage their reputation and influence consumers has
led to some distaste in the journalism community. Some critics, including Pepulla
(2014) and Filloux (2014), have expressed concern over the trusted and
independent nature of journalism that corporations are harnessing for their own
benefit. Cramer (2016:74) quotes Shane Snow, co-founder of Contently, when
pulling apart the term brand journalism:
“What Brands are doing, by and large, is not journalism. It’s information
and entertainment. It can still be honest, but let’s not conflate that with
the Fourth Estate.”
2.4 The decline of traditional media: every company is now a media
company
Recognising the increasing importance of businesses having to adapt to the
demands of the modern consumer, Tom Foremski (2010) put forth a
transformative equation for modern business: EC=MC. Referring to the concept
that ‘every company is a media company,’ Foremski alludes to the new
publishing models of Web 2.0 and how every organisation can create and share
content on the web. This approach is concerned with “delivering content when
and where it is needed and, in the process, branding you or your organisation as
13. 13
a leader” (Scott, 2011:31). By assuming the role of a media company and
behaving like a publisher, an organisation can become a purveyor of information
and assimilate traditional media.
For Rob Brown (2012:113), “brands and businesses have always been
publishers.” However, the advent of digital and social media has opened up a
new world for brands to communicate and publish content in. In making the case
for brands to assume the role of a media company alongside their usual business,
Lieb (2012:xvii) notes factors such as shrinking budgets in traditional media,
heightened customer awareness, the low costs of online publishing and access to
industry experts. Likewise, Bull (2012:9) points to the disintegration of
traditional media as one of the key reasons for brands to employ corporate
publishing techniques to communicate. Equally, Waddington and Earl (2012:11)
recognise that “the editorial world is changing rapidly which mean that the way
public relations creates influence and tackles things that impinge on influence
have to change too.” Confirming Bull’s theory, a census by The American Society
of News Editors (2015, in Edmonds, 2015) showed that the number of news
professionals working in the media has fell by over forty percent since 2006.
Such dramatic decline in the resource, staff and structure of traditional media
suggests they are not the powerful, influential third-party voice they once were.
2.5 Rising confidence in what companies say
Within the PESO mix, earned publicity has long been seen as the most credible
and influential, due to the insertion of third party opinion and editorial authority.
Although a survey by Nielsen (2013) confirmed that earned media is the most
credible among consumers, it noted a rising trust in owned media and branded
online content. This rise in credibility was confirmed when Nielsen (2015) later
reported that, while 66% of respondents to its survey completely or somewhat
trust editorial content such as newspapers articles, 70% trusted branded
websites. This increase in trust with regards to what companies say presents an
occasion for brands to establish and maintain direct and mutually beneficial
relationships with their stakeholders.
Further to this, the Edelman’s Trust Barometer highlights the levels of
trust in four institutions: business, NGOs, government and media. In 2016, “no
14. 14
institution recorded a larger gain in trust among the general population
than business” (Edelman, 2016). In both the general and informed public, the
report found that business held a 6% gain over traditional media. Technology,
food and beverage and consumer packaged goods all ranked high within the
business section, while financial services, energy companies and
pharmaceuticals were viewed as the least trustworthy industries. The report
notes: “business finds itself today in a new situation of strength, a unique
position that translates into an opportunity to help mend the trust divide”
(Edelman, 2016). Overall, this presents a momentous occasion for businesses to
utilise public trust and communicate directly and transparently with their
publics.
2.6 From interruption to influence: re-thinking owned media
While it has typically been the primary concern of PR, Sheldrake (2012) explains
that “‘earned media’ is not a synonym for public relations.” For him, instead of
interrupting public conversations with forceful messages, organisations should
aim to influence their publics with genuine and transparent dialogue. Rather
than ‘pushing’ content, as Lieb (2012) argues, companies should aim to ‘pull’
consumers with engaging and informative content which encourages them to
return. Leberecht (2009) similarly argues
“Brands still need to find the right balance between talking and being
talked about, and they still have to distinguish themselves from others by
having a unique voice and perspective.”
Leberecht (2009) also views the changing media landscape as the main
motivation for brands to utilise owned media to communicate transparently and
with authority. This disintermediation or - as Waddington & Earl (2012:55) view
it – “cutting out the middleman” means that brands can “command the influence
they have over their audiences.” On the web, owned media offers a controlled
and unbroken line of communication whereby a brand “decides what type of
content to publish, how often it will be updated and how users can interact with
it,” though its credibility is arguably lessened through the lack of third party
opinion (Bailey, 2014).
15. 15
The fact is, “people are reading online content more widely than ever before
because they can access more information, more quickly” (Waddington & Earl,
2012:30). For O’Toole (2013) this means that “brands need to create content
that’s worth sharing in its own right,” by not putting too much of a focus on the
organisation itself. Referring to Lieb (2012 in O’Toole, 2013) and the “shift away
from the “I” of the brand or product toward the “you” of the customer,” O’Toole
explains that successful brand publishers must listen to what conversations
customers are having and respond with content that serves their needs.
Similarly, for Waddington and Earl (2012:136), “knowledge of the audience is
crucial to knowing what content to create – its message, its tone, its balance of
information and entertainment.” With regard to Sheldrake’s Six Influence Flows
(2011), the influence stakeholders have on an organisation as well as their
influence with each other is of paramount importance to brand publishing.
Brands must therefore strive to implement two-way communication that listens
to customers while adapting to their needs. Whenman shares a similar view,
explaining that “brands hold a wealth of information that can be transformed
into engaging, shareable content occupying the ground between what your
brand stands for and what your stakeholders want to read” (2015:52).
Meanwhile, whilst not directly referring to the discipline of brand journalism,
O’Toole (2013) highlights a useful framework in the five S’s of marketable
content. In order to cut through the noise of the congested digital landscape,
branded content must be: searchable, shareable, supportive, specialist
and sustainable. O’Toole (2013) also points to the importance of multi-media
tactics in brand publishing, explaining “both tweets and Facebook posts with
images have significantly higher user engagement rates than those without.”
Arguing that branded media means brand can “truly be disruptive,” Boncheck
(2014) explains all owned media strategies should create value beyond the
company’s product, use data to shape their message and treat consumers as
“active co-creators.” Despite referring specifically to blogs, Solis (2009:145)
makes some noteworthy comments on what branded online content should do;
“have a voice, communicate with customers, use non-traditional platforms,
unmask predispositions [and] help mold perceptions.” ‘Media snackers’ are also
an important driving factor in reshaping owned media strategy for Solis. He
16. 16
explains these are “content creators or consumers who read small bits of
information, data, or entertainment when, where, and how they want”
(2009:178). These media snackers are “defining the new social economy” for
Solis (2009:178), by “building social capital for themselves.”
2.7 Brand journalism and the social web: the psychology of sharing
An essential part of brand journalism is engaging social media users to interact,
respond and share content. The New York Times Customer Insight Group (2011)
conducted study into why people share content online, uncovering their
motivations, personas and impact. The report found that relationships impact
heavily on the reasons people share content, offering the following five key
motives:
1. “Bring valuable and entertaining content to others
2. To define ourselves to others
3. To nourish our relationships
4. Self fulfillment
5. To spread the word about a cause or brand”
A vital aspect of the psychology of sharing is enrichment, not only for the sharer
but also for the hope that the content shared will enrich the lives of others.
Moreover, the study found that 68% of social media users share to “give people a
better sense of who they are and what they care about.” Thus highlighting that
idea that social media users use content as means of reinforcing their image of
self. Classifying the identities of online sharers, the New York Times (2011)
further broke down the personas into six profiles (see appendix 2):
Altruists
Careerists
Hipsters
Boomerangs
Connectors
Selectives
Depending on their profile, the report found that factors such as emotional
stimulation, presentation of self and intellectual value all played an important
role in determining what, where and why content was shared.
Brian Solis (2009:xvii) argues that social media has democratized content,
signaling the shift from a broadcast mechanism to a model “rooted in
17. 17
conversational format” and participation. Social media means brand must adopt
a new mindset, “humanizing and personalizing stories specifically for the people
[they] want to reach” (Solis, 2009:xix). He argues that social media is a “return to
the basics –placing the public back in Public Relations” (Solis, 2009:79).
Ultimately, brand must use social media as a platform for “informed, mutually
beneficial, and genuine participation inspires relationship building” (Solis,
2009:75).
2.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, this theoretical review has revealed that brands are filling the void
left behind by the disintegration of traditional media, which has seen a
significant decline in resource and workforce over the past decade.
Disintermediation means that brands no longer need rely on pitching
superfluous press releases to communicate with and influence their publics. As a
result of digital and social media, brands can create their own editorial content,
tailored to their specific audience and share it with their following online. This
content is engineered to be fundamentally social, while creating authentic
relationships and understanding. Moreover, there is an increasing sentiment of
trust in business, as shown by previous surveys. Such change in the media
landscape of trust could present numerous opportunities for business.
18. 18
3.1 Methodologies
The literature review highlighted the theoretical issues behind brand journalism
and also why corporations are choosing to harness the power of direct
communication through engaging, audience specific content. It was necessary to
further investigate these theories through both primary and secondary data
collection to resolve “gaps in the literature” and answer questions formulated
upon “reflecting upon what is going on in modern organisations” (Bryman & Bell,
2011:xxxiv).
A ‘triangulation’ based approach was employed in this research to ensure
“that the results [were] valid and not methodological artifact” (Bouchard,
1976:268, in Jick 1979:602). Such a multi-method approach would create more
confidence in the result, uncover “deviant” elements, allow for a “synthesis or
integration of theories” and ultimately ensure a comprehensive and “enriched
explanation of the research problem” (Jick 1979:608-9). This section gives an
overview and explanation of the methods used to carry out this research.
3.2 Case Studies
To give substance to the theories and debates introduced in the previous
chapter, a critical scrutiny of three brands currently employing brand journalism
as a strategic communication tool was needed. As Hartley (2004 in Njie &
Asimiran, 2014:36) argues, the aim of using case studies is “to provide an
analysis of the context and processes which illuminate[s] the theoretical issues
being studied.” The brands were chosen specifically to help assemble a better
understanding of how corporate publishing functions in both a business-to-
customer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B) environment, as well as how it
could be used unethically (see appendix 3).
a. Red Bull – The Red Bulletin
b. General Electrics – GE Reports
c. Chevron – Richmond Standard
All of the businesses selected were chosen due to the fact they are large
multinationals spanning a range of industries. In analyzing each of the brands,
19. 19
the PESO model was employed to give an overall view of how their PR strategies
function in relation to brand journalism. However, due to its irrelevance to this
study, the paid channel was instead replaced with a more comprehensive
overview of brand image. Through a critical analysis of the chosen companies,
earned, shared and owned media was rated out of five alongside brand image to
compare the strategies of each. Ultimately, the case studies were employed
“with the aim of answering the “how” and “why” conundrums” of the research
area (Njie & Asimiran, 2014:39).
3.3 Qualitative interviews
To further build upon the theoretical framework and case studies, interviews
were conducted with six opinion leaders with backgrounds in PR, content
marketing and journalism. By acquiring perspectives from both academic and
industry figures, the insight provided by each assisted in the generation of
knowledge which was both far reaching and comprehensive. As Barbour
(2001:1117) argues, “qualitative research… allows a research question to be
examined from various angles” and gives far more comprehensive overview of
the subject matter. The following experts were contacted (see appendix 4):
Mike Aldax - Editor of the Richmond Standard & Senior Account
Executive at Singer Associates
JJ Dunning - Editor-in-Chief at the Red Bulletin UK and redbull.com
Andy Bull – Journalist and author of ‘Brand Journalism’ and ‘Multimedia
Journalism’
Steven Waddington - Chief Engagement Officer at Ketchum, author of
‘Brand Vandals’, ‘Brand Anarchy’ and editor of ‘Share This’ and ‘Share
This Too’
Theresa Cramer – Editor of Econtent trade magazine and author of
‘Inside Content Marketing’
Dan Brotzel – Content Director and Co-founder at Sticky Content, Blogger
at Econsultancy
20. 20
The opinion leaders were all contacted through email or social media to ask for
their input into this research and subsequent interviews were conducted via
email (bar Waddington who recorded an audio file posted it to his blog). Each
interviewee was given an identical set of seven open-ended questions to improve
analysis, ease collation of data and make more comprehensive comparisons.
Tomas Kellner ceased contact via email, despite initially agreeing to the
interview. Brian Solis responded but was too busy at the time to commit to
anything and several others (Dan Lyons, Tom Foremski and Sam Petulla) did not
reply. All gave full consent to the interviews being used in this research.
3.4 Quantitative survey
To gain a better understanding of public perception of business and media, a
quantitative survey was conducted online. As Bell (2005:136) argues, the
questions and areas of investigation in the survey were born as a result of
preliminary literature review and the initial research plan. Several questions
were also inspired by responses gained in the expert interviews. The
questionnaire consisted of twelve questions that varied between demographic,
multiple choice, rating and lickert scale questions.
The questionnaire was conducted using the web-based survey site
surveymonkey.co.uk. The sample size target was set at 200, but subsequently
achieved 220; such number of responses would ascertain wide number of views,
while also being realistic given the resources available. Moreover, benefits of
conducting the survey online included “access to unique populations,” reduced
time and low cost (Wright, 2005). In accordance with recommendations made by
Bell (2005:147), the questionnaire was piloted among colleagues and peers to
test the time it took to complete the survey, to ensure questions were clear and
understandable and to remove any questions that did not yield usable data. This
pilot brought no serious problems to light and so allowed the questionnaire to
progress.
The survey was posted to bulletin boards, consumer discussion groups,
forums and shared in groups on the professional networking site LinkedIn. As a
survey aimed at consumers and the general public, it was vital to ensure PR
jargon and industry specific terms were avoided or clarified. For example,
21. 21
providing examples of traditional and owned media was important to ensure
there was no confusion for respondents. All participants gave full consent to
taking part in this research and their identities kept anonymous.
3.5 Conclusion
Adding context and depth to the theoretical debates introduced in chapter two,
the combined use of secondary, qualitative and quantitative data allowed for a
“better overall view of reality” through being able to cross-check data and
balancing the benefits/drawbacks of each method (Bryman, 1984:86). This triad
of research types allowed for a more comprehensive overview and analysis of
the brand journalism phenomenon.
22. 22
4.1 Secondary research:brand journalism case studies
This chapter will give an analysis of the three chosen brands and their brand
journalism strategies, using the modified PESO framework as previously noted to
asses how they implement editorial content as a communicative tool.
4.2 General Electric - GE Reports
Owned 5/5
While much of its content often has a direct connection with the brand, such as
exclusive tours of the newest cargo jet for which GE designed and manufactured
its engines, some, such as the regular ‘5 coolest things in the world this week’,
deal with scientific and technological advancements outside of the corporation’s
direct line of business. The site is made up of authentic multi-media news articles
that appeal directly to those in engineering, technology and digital industries,
while also engaging wider audiences through a jargon-stripped approach.
Ultimately positioning the organisation as a “digital company…that’s also an
industrial company” (Lauchlan, 2015).
Tomas Kellner, an ex-Forbes reporter, is managing editor of the GE
Reports news site and in an interview with Contently he pointed out how all of
the content he creates has to be newsworthy in the sense that readers learn
something. He explained:
23. 23
“I wanted to produce an online magazine that tells people something new.
I basically ignored press releases, and focused 100 percent on
storytelling. My stories have real protagonists who are trying to solve real
problems and reach real outcomes” (Lazaukas, 2015).
This approach to brand journalism closely aligns with the views of several critics
(Ramlochan, 2015 and Lofgren, 2014) who agree that in order to be successful
content must engross and inspire readers by telling stories that express a
brand’s personality. Rather than directly selling or being promotional, GE
Reports creates a strong brand image, aligning the company as a leader in the
field of science, technology and engineering. Ultimately, GE Reports brings value
to its readers, by giving them a reason to keep returning to the their website
with interesting and engaging content. By creating content which captivates
imagination, GE ensure their content has the power behind it to travel on social
media.
GE’s approach to brand journalism ultimately seeks to create awareness
of the brand as an innovator, by taking a credible, editorial approach to the
content it produces. It strives to render the press release obsolete through
producing articles worthy of being published in traditional media. Taking an in-
house newsroom style approach, GE produce articles which communicate on
behalf of their business in a way that attracts readers from outside the
science/technology sphere. GE Reports therefore acts as a mouthpiece for the
organisation, providing content that the everyday person would want to read.
Earned 3/5
Due its quality and consistency, content published by GE Reports often finds its
way into external media such “Wired, Gizmodo, New Scientist, Fast Company or
traditional media like Newsweek, Time or The Washington Post” (Kowai, 2016).
Therefore, rather than pushing stories using conventional press releases, which
the brand has no control over, GE continues to maintain presence in traditional,
earned media through creating content that is worthy of being printed in leading
publications.
However, the company’s practices have earned a substantial amount of
criticism in the media, with accusations of the brand lobbying US congress with
large cash donations and polluting the environment (Mindock & Sirota, 2016).
24. 24
Moreover, a federal trial the company have been involved in due to pollution of
the Hudson river has recently found the brand receiving widespread
commendation for its practices (Lyong, 2016). In many ways, what the company
says misaligned with what it physically does and what third party sources say
about it.
Shared 4/5
Social media plays a significant role in the dissemination of GE’s brand
journalism. While the brand has a firm following on Facebook (1.6 million) and
Twitter (420,000+), it often relies on less mainstream platforms. Content created
by GE Reports, as Lazauskas (2015) points out, regularly rockets up the boards
of Reddit, opening it up to millions of readers. As a social network news site,
Reddit is a facilitator of two-way dialogue in which users are in control not
publishers. Therefore, for content to find its way onto the Reddit boards, it truly
has to have human interest at its core. Moreover, GE also targets platforms such
as Tumblr and Storify. Like Reddit, Tumblr is an inherently social channel, and
through posting engaging multimedia content GE is able to distribute its brand
journalism and message organically.
From a psychological perspective, GE Reports’ relationship with social
media underlines the findings of the New York Times (2011:17), which found
that social media users are steered by a need to “bring valuable and entertaining
content to others.” The news site’s emphasis on captivating and compelling
content means that social media users, through their drive to both define
themselves and nourish their relationships with other users, share GE’s brand
journalism within their network. Specifically, GE Reports’ content is targeted at:
selectives, hipsters and careerists. GE therefore places importance not just on its
own influence on stakeholders, but also the second flow of Sheldrake’s (2011)
six influence flows – stakeholder’s influence with each other with respect to the
organisation.
Brand image 4/5
As well as creating awareness, a key aspect of GE Report’s brand strategy is to
help stakeholders become more knowledgeable about GE as a company. By
25. 25
harnessing human interest with fascinating and compelling editorial content, the
corporation is creating acceptance, through being viewed as a thought leader,
and respect, through enforcing a positive corporate reputation. This, as Gurau’s
interpretation of the Jefkins’ Transfer Process Model (1995, in Gurau, 2007:290)
suggests, will in turn lead to public empathy toward the brand.
26. 26
4.3 Chevron – Richmond Standard
Owned 2/5
Launched following several major incidents including explosions, fires and toxic
fumes, the Richmond Standard is now in its second year and funded by Chevron
“to provide Richmond residents with important information about what’s going
on in the community” (richmondstandard.com). Publishing several stories per
day, the site is both consistent and up-to-date in its reporting style. Its structure
and format is virtually unrecognisable from that of a local community news site,
having been stripped of Chevron branding and any distinct connection with the
energy company. The only attachment between the two can be found in a small
box in the corner of the page which states: “this news website is brought to you
by Chevron Richmond” (richmondstandard.com).
Its categories resemble a typical local news outlet interest, including:
community views, education, jobs, entertainment and sports. That is until the
subcategory ‘Chevron speaks’ in which the company explain, “this is a dedicated
page for the Chevron Richmond Refinery to share its news and views on issues
important to the company and the Richmond, CA community”
(richmondstandard.com). This section acts a direct point of communication
between Chevron and its stakeholders, pointing out inaccuracies in the stories of
27. 27
other news outlets, issuing company statements, using expert opinion from
within the company, interviewing members of staff and generally explaining the
companies stance.
Affirming the theory that “PR has become an escape route for journalists”
(Morris & Goldsworthy, 2012:18), the Richmond Standard is run singlehandedly
by Mike Aldax, a former reporter for the San Francisco Examiner. As both an
editor and writer, he is a one-man newsroom employed by Singer Associates
(see appendix 5). Unlike traditional media, whereby the editor generally has final
say over what is published, Chevron’s overarching influence is undeniable. Aldax
explained in an interview, “if you’re looking for criticism of Chevron you’re not
going to find it in the Richmond Standard” (Carroll, 2014). The independent and
partisan complexion of journalism is therefore exploited by Chevron, by trying to
manipulate local public opinion through the publication of ‘spin’ subtly disguised
as community news.
Brand journalism therefore provides a direct wire and unfiltered of
communication with local stakeholders of which the company is in complete
control of. Chevron no longer require the input of third party, earned opinion as
they have established themselves as the source of local news through the
Richmond Standard. However, the ethics of branding the Richmond Standard as a
local news site that provides information to the local community unearths
numerous issues. Jovanka Beckles, vice-mayor of Richmond, was quoted in the
Guardian explaining that the news outlet is “solely a marketing strategy to
distort and distract from the real news. It’s part of the way Chevron bullies this
city” (Carroll, 2014).
Earned 1/5
Pressure groups such as the True Cost of Chevron (TCC) represent a network of
charities and supporters who believe the business is damaging the environment
and abusing human rights. The TCC have directly condemned Chevron, fighting
for communities including Richmond, CA who they argue have “suffered the dire
impacts of Chevron’s reckless pursuit of profits” (TCC, 2015).
Moreover, the disintegration of traditional media, which many critics see
as the driving reason behind the rise brand journalism (Bull, 2012; Lieb, 2012 &
28. 28
Edmonds, 2015), is very much apparent in the Richmond, CA area. The San
Francisco Chronicle previously covered the Richmond area, but following a
dramatic decline in readership, cuts to staff meant local news was no longer a
viable option (SF Gate, 2009). The Richmond Standard’s closest rival, the
Richmond Confidential, is run by journaslim students and does not have the
funding or resource to run all year round. Moreover, at six thousand likes, its
presence on social media is minor in comparison. Essentially, the Richmond
Standard has filled a void in local news created by the decline and disintegration
of traditional media.
Shared 1/5
Meanwhile, the brands social media pages on both Facebook and Twitter are
entirely void of a connection to the Chevron brand, failing to mention that the
operation is funded and driven by the company. As such, this goes against the
“hidden placement” guise of brand journalism that Baetzgen and Tropp (2013:7)
firmly argue against. Furthermore, in considering the fact Richmond, CA has a
population of just over one hundred thousand, it is viable to say the Facebook
page, which has over twenty-two thousand ‘likes,’ has substantial influence on
the local area. In contrast to the web page, there is no mention of Chevron or the
fact that the page is ran by journalist funded by the energy corporation. While
some, including Brian Solis (2009), argue that social media has democratised
online content, Chevron have become distributers of corporate disinformation
through their use of brand journalism. Chevron’s brand journalism strategy can
in many ways be viewed as whitewashing, in that it attempts to gloss over the
environmental damage the company has caused. Beaugez explains their
approach is ‘something more akin to brand-sponsored journalism’ (2014).
Brand Image 2/5
As previously noted in the Edelman’s Trust Barometer (2016), the Energy sector
is one of the least trustworthy industries, ranking at only 58% with the general
public. Alongside the chain of negative events that have inundated the Richmond
oil refinery, there is no doubt that Chevron finds itself in position where the
restoration of trust in its publics is key for it to continue to function as a
29. 29
business. Its corporate image is stained with unfavourable, negative sentiment
from the local community which have been the main recipient of the company’s
failings. As such, feelings of hostility are born in conjunction with current public
prejudices concerning corporations in the oil and gas industry.
In occupying the hyper-local news space left by the deterioration of
traditional media with deceptive content that ‘entertain, inspires and influences’
(Lofgren, 2014:10), the Richmond Standard provides a platform for Chevron to
inject its message directly into the local community. In removing the Richmond
Standard’s social media pages of Chevron branding and failing to make clear that
operation is funded by the corporation, questions over the ethical and moral
implications of such brand journalism are raised. Though it attempts to make
stakeholders more knowledgeable about the company, Chevron is deceptive in
the way in which in conceals its message and misuses public trust in journalism.
30. 30
4.4 Red Bull – The Red Bulletin
Owned 5/5
Red Bull’s strategy has often been referred to as the gold standard of brand
journalism. Cramer (2016:30) remarks that “it is often referred to as a media
company that just happens to sell an energy drink.” As a brand it embodies what
a media company should be, creating valuable content that engages its target
demographic. Simultaneously, they embellish who they are and what they stand
for as an organisation into every piece of editorial they produce. Kimmel (2012,
in Bull 2013:88) argues that the reason behind Red Bull’s success is the fact it
puts corporate strategy at the very heart of its brand journalism. She explains:
“Red Bull is a lifestyle brand that, though its positioning that it ‘gives you
wings’, is centred on a philosophy that any person can get onto the world
stage to excel in the field of sports or entertainment that Red bull has
created for him/her.”
In line with Lofgren’s (2014:10) guidelines, Red Bull is a brand that puts
‘telling’ before ‘selling’. The brand’s homepage, redbull.com, is void of any
attempt to directly sell its product. Instead, it is solely focused on providing
journalistic content which fascinates its targeted Generation Y audience (18-34).
Meanwhile, Red Bulletin is the brand’s international magazine published online
and in print, adhering to the notion that brand journalism is about people not
products. Its content covers a range of topics that align with the young
adrenaline-seeking bracket the brand wants to be associated with. While many
of its stories feature notable sport people, musicians and film stars that would
31. 31
typically be covered by traditional newspapers and magazine, Red Bulletin has
the resources to cover figures that exist outside the interest of mainstream.
Indeed, one of the key objectives of The Red Bulletin is to communicate an
internal self-image of the consumer as a daring, successful and audacious
individual. As such, “at the heart of the magazine are stories of people who
persevere in the face of considerable obstacles” (Grinapol, 2015). Rather than
forcing content and messages directly onto their audience, Red Bull ensure their
strategy is built around content and messages which ‘pull’ the reader back to
their site and ultimately their brand. Instead of focusing on the company itself,
Red Bull recognise the influence their customers have on their organisation and
therefore put them at the focal point of their brand journalism. This corresponds
with the view Lieb (2012) takes, when she explains that brands must place focus
on the ‘you’ of the customer by listening to them and responding with content
benefits them.
Earned 4/5
The Red Bulletin has now evolved into a media site featuring a range and quality
of content that rivals even the leading lifestyle magazines. In considering the
dramatic changes to the men’s magazine landscape following the closure of
Loaded, Nuts, FHM and Zoo, Red Bulletin’s male orientated content fills the sizable
void left as a result. Through this disintegration of traditional media, which Andy
Bull (2012:9) cites as the primary reason for brands assuming the role of
corporate publishing houses, The Red Bulletin has essentially become third party,
earned media from which other brands turn to promote their product/service.
Wegert (2015) remarks that in 2014 “Red Bull TV became Apple TV’s first
branded content channel… [using] event and film sponsorships and online video
advertising to generate revenue.” Describing the brand as a “media powerhouse,”
Lazauskas (2014) proposed that Red Bull are on course to become the new ESPN
because of their extensive and superior coverage of sport.
Moreover, the Red Bull Content Pool allows external media to access a
vast collection of print and multimedia content for editorial use. As a result,
traditional media regularly pick up stories and publish them to their sites; often
filling in the gaps left by cut back newsrooms and tightened budgets. Metro and
32. 32
Reuters are two media outlets that have announced partnerships with Red Bull,
distributing the brands content and “further blurring the line between brand-
created content and journalism” (Castillo, 2016). As a result, the brand achieves
the benefit of being associated with a credible and trustworthy news source,
while remaining creators owned content that is published. This convergence of
owned, earned and shared media, which is driven by “socially powered,
technology-juiced content” (McDermott, 2013), means the brand need no longer
rely on traditional media relations to drive awareness. Red Bull uses traditional
media relations to further increase the coverage of its brand journalism.
Shared media 5/5
A key tool in the dissemination of Red Bull’s journalistic content is social media,
primarily Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. With 46 million likes, the brand’s
Facebook following dwarfs that of even the biggest media companies, allowing it
to publish content directly to vast audiences without the need to use traditional
media. By sharing compelling, multimedia brand journalism that captivates
human imagination to its social media channels, the company creates authentic
engagement between customers and the Red Bull brand. Through appealing to
“consumers’ motivation to connect with each other – not just the brand” (New
York Times, 2011), Red Bull ensure their brand journalism is inherently
shareable. Moreover, while the engrossing nature of their content draws much
wider consumer interest, hipsters and ‘boomerangs are the primary targets of
their content on social media. On social media, Red Bull’s content appeals to
‘media snackers.’ Its multi-media, multi-platfrom content makes a compelling
effort to galvanize human emotion and inspire ambition through audacious
stories with real people at their heart.
Brand image 5/5
The energy drink Red Bull produces has seen a substantial amount of criticism
and negative attention in the press, with reports of some drinkers suffering
“stomach pain, headaches and sleep problems” (Clarke, 2016), food research
organisations calling for children to be banned from buying it due to the health
risks (Herald Scotland, 2016) and a report of one man suffering a heart attack as
33. 33
a result of consuming the beverage (Spillet, 2015). Because of the ‘unhealthy’
nature of the product it sells, Red Bull is often the subject of damaging earned
media. Thus, brand image is of vital importance as a company which deals
directly with consumers. In using brand journalism to create a ‘cool’ customer-
brand affinity through targeted and compelling content, Red Bull project a potent
brand image into the eyes of the consumer.
4.5 Conclusion
These case studies have demonstrated how companies are using brand
journalism as a tool to influence their publics. While each employs an editorial
mindset to their content, the reasoning and strategy behind each differs. As a
B2C brand, Red Bull are clearly focused on using editorial content to create an
aura of excitement and sensation around their product. Where as the B2B brand
GE, employ journalistic content to position themselves as industry leaders and
innovators.
Fig.2
Red Bull ranked the best of the three brands, due to the fact its content
transcended the PESO framework. Through a systematic and sustained approach
to its editorial content, the brand achieves a convergence of its media channels.
The brand’s content ignites conversations on social media and subsequently
produces brand advocates who are willing to spread their content online.
Prioritising stakeholders influence with each other with regard to the brand
itself, Red Bull not only create content which has fuel to be shared far and wide
34. 34
by numerous online personas but they also embellish a potent corporate image
into everything they produce.
GE meanwhile strives to position themself as an industry and thought
leader, through their informative and captivating content. They employ expertise
from within the company and offer their insight and knowledge through
engrossing editorial, while simultaneously attracting the attention of those
outside the science/technology sphere. The GE Reports website closely relates to
Bull’s (2012:157-198) evaluation of organisations using their branded websites
as “information hubs” which not only persuade people to engage with the brand
but deepen relationships through content tailored to a niche audience.
Chevron’s reputation is very much stained by what it does and what
others say about it. Although it makes a valiant effort to communicate directly
with its stakeholders and create some understanding of its practices, it is
deceptive in the way it does so. When one considers the definition of propaganda
as “information, especially of a biased or misleading nature used to promote a
cause or point of view” (OED, 2012:576), it is perhaps not unjustified to label the
Richmond Standard as such.
35. 35
5.1 Interviews withindustry experts
As previously noted, industry experts were then interviewed to gain a more
detailed overview of the key ideas that were unearthed in both the literature
review and case study analysis. It was important to contact notable figures
unearthed from the case studies as well as experts relating to branded content
and social/digital media. A synopsis of the responses is given below (full
transcripts/questions see appendix 6).
1. Why do you think brands are choosing to bypass traditional media and
instead create their own editorial content?
Cramer sees brand journalism as a ‘natural extension’ of social media, allowing
PR people to ‘at least try to control’ the messages they put out. She explains,
‘brands and celebrities no longer need magazines and newspapers to tell their
stories, because they can do it themselves via Twitter.’ Bull agrees, arguing that
‘publishers/broadcasters were the gatekeepers between brands and the public.’
Now with online and social media, brands ‘talk to that audience directly.’ Brotzel
sees ‘brand affinity’ and creating ‘positive sentiment’ as the driving factor, while
giving brand a chance to be part of the consumer ‘research process’ by providing
‘answers to people’s questions.’ He says that:
‘Businesses sit on lots of expertise - brand journalism helps to unlock that
knowledge; and businesses today often have deeper pockets than
traditional media players.’
Aldax meanwhile disagrees with the term ‘bypass.’ He explains that
Chevron’s PR team still ‘pitch a variety of story ideas to traditional media outlets’
and such coverage is seen as a ‘significant victory’ still. However, he argues that
‘traditional news publications no longer having the bandwidth to cover most of
those stories’ Chevron pitch to the media. Brand journalism presented a ‘new
way for Chevron to communicate more directly with the community it has called
a neighbor for more than a century.’ He uses the analogy of USA Water Polo,
explaining that the mainstream media is preoccupied with other sports and so
fails to it. However, using brand journalism, they cover events outside the
36. 36
mainstream interest with video and daily news coverage to their following
online.
Dunning indicates that audience attention means brands need present in
more places to ‘maintain conversation’ and stay ‘credible.’ He says that, because
content is their product, publishers are struggling to make money as the internet
means anyone with ‘the quality, budget and ambition’ can rival them. He also
added that Generation Z don’t really recognise the difference between branded
content and that produced by a magazine – ‘the first place they see it is on social.’
Waddington says it is because the opportunity is available to them to ‘create
their own forms of media and build direct relationships’ rather than
‘disintermediated relationships’ through traditional media. He also says, ‘media
is just so fragmented and spread so thin… getting the attention of traditional
journalists is much harder than it used to be.’ ‘There’s just huge opportunity here
and that’s quite powerful,’ he explains.
2. In your opinion, what is the main benefit of brand journalism and
corporations assuming the role of publishing houses?
For Bull, ‘it’s being able to engage with an audience directly, to gain a far clearer
understanding of them, their wants, needs and interests, and to engage with
them on a personal level.’ Ultimately, creating a ‘much richer relationship.’
Control over your message was the prevailing reason pointed out by the opinion
leaders, with Cramer viewing this control as the driving benefit. Brotzel
explained that brands can ‘promote themselves as generous providers of
valuable information that has a chance of predisposing users to engage with
them.’
Aldax sees ‘being part of the public dialogue’ as a big benefit, ‘having a
voice and reaching people who care about what you have to say, whether they
like what you have to say or not.’ He says that brand journalism ‘has been an
invaluable communications vehicle’ for Chevron. Waddington also argues that
‘it’s the opportunity to develop a direct relationship with a public, with an
audience.’ For him being able to utilise the ability to use the ‘direct and first
person voice [of a brand] is incredibly powerful.’ He continues:
37. 37
‘The ones that do it successfully are the ones that do it authentically and
without spin. They tend to be in a first person reportage voice without hype
or hyperbole. People want authenticity from branded journalism –if they
don’t get that they just switch off.’
For Dunning brands journalism is helping to ‘shore up the future of high-quality
special interest journalism.’ Through working with people with ‘impressive
media pedigree’ he says Red Bull has the right to call itself a ‘21st century media
business.’
3. Is brand journalism reserved for a specific type/size of company? How do
you think smaller organisations develop their own brand journalism?
While ‘good journalism is generally expensive and time-consuming to produce,’
Bull notes that regardless of resources effective brand journalism uses
‘journalistic instinct and understanding of an audience to present them with
material that they will find valuable.’ Cramer similarly argues that brand
journalism is not reserved for a specific size or type of company. However, she
explains:
‘It won't be a fit for every brand, but if brand journalism is right for you, all
you need to get started is one person who can write a good story, and engage
with your audience through your owned channels--like social media’
Aldax explains that ‘the beauty of the Internet is you don’t need to be a large
news organization to have a voice.’ While ‘it does take a reasonable number of
people depending on the scale,’ Waddington also disagrees that brand
journalism is reserved for a specific size of company. ‘It can also be just as simple
as one person- an in-house journalist producing copy for a website or a blog,’ he
says. Brotzel puts forth the example of ‘The Fence Post’ when he notes that
brands can be successful ‘just by talking in an interesting and useful way about
what is knows about.’
38. 38
4. A number of surveys (Edelman’s Trust Barometer, Nielsen) have suggested
that business is now a more trusted institution than the media. How could
this difference in trust impact traditional media relations in the PR
profession?
Bull explains that this means brands must communicate directly with their
audience, tilting the balance away from using traditional media to get a message
across. He notes:
‘What is crucial is that the brand journalism has all the traits of good,
objective journalism, and that it keeps well away from the sort of puffy,
promotional, hype that has undermined the value of traditional PR.’
Cramer, meanwhile, sees these surveys and statistics as ‘baffling,’ pointing to
scandals in the automotive industry. While she thinks that ‘premium publishers’
will always have the upper hand, the ways in which PR people earn coverage for
a client will change. These ‘things might come as the result of a well-executed
social media and content marketing effort,’ rather than a press release. She
continues:
‘The real change is in marketing budgets. PR people want your attention, but
their colleagues in the marketing departments are less willing to pay for
advertising and support the media they still need.’
‘A greater multiplicity of voices that has provided alternatives to mainstream
media may be helping to inform readers about bias,’ Aldax explains. From an
audience-brand trust perspective, he says that ‘transparency has become the
new objectivity.’ Referencing a study commissioned by Chevron, which showed
that readers are both aware the Richmond Standard is ‘Chevron-sponsored’ and
that ‘they also don’t mind,’ he says that ‘readers appreciate [it] as an alternative
perspective on local issues.’
Waddington see it as part of a ‘continuum.’ Despite media relations
creating mediated relationships it is still an important part of creating influence.
He refers an area of PR called ‘influencer relations,’ arguing that ‘brands have
recognised that they can be influencers by creating all sort of content.’ Through
brand journalism and publishing content, the brand becomes an influencer
39. 39
similar to those ‘paid and earned influencers on… Instagram, Facebook and
blogs.’
5. Do commercial motives and vested interests mean that brand journalism
will never truly be journalism? What do you think are the ethical concerns?
Bull views traditional publishers as brands. He explains ‘Murdoch is a brand, the
Daily Mail is a brand. Those brands embody a world-view and the news they
produce is imbued with that world view.’ But equally he argues that:
‘Brands may also have a world view (or values, interests, opinions, or biases),
and it is vital that an audience knows which brand is producing the
journalism they are consuming in order that they can assess the validity of
that material.’
Cramer holds the view that ‘if brand journalism is done right, there don't need to
be ethical concerns.’ She says that:
‘Having clear guidelines and former journalists working on creating the
content, helps keep brands from wandering into self-promotion territory
(and will cut through all the marketing jargon, and specious claims we see in
traditional press releases).’
Aldax interestingly points out that he was ‘accused by many colleagues of being a
sell-out for leaving mainstream media to launch the Chevron-sponsored
Richmond Standard.’ Yet he explains:
‘I have been having a far more positive impact with my journalism, partly
because I don’t have to inorganically pine for sensational or gotcha reports to
maintain readers and advertisers.’
Waddington explains ‘brand[s] needs to be open and transparent about how it
publishes its content.’ Like traditional media, ‘the brand still has to earn your
attention.’ If its not ‘open, transparent and authentic… the brand will lose your
respect and attention.’ He continues:
‘Inevitably, because content is published by a brand there isn’t going to be
balanced it is going to be presented from the brand point of view, it won’t be
third party in the way that traditional media are. But I think people will view
content from brands through that lens.’
40. 40
Brotzel referred to a blog post he had written entitled ‘Editorial Integrity on the
Dark Side,’ noting that post-Leveson legislation applied to websites and online
magazines but not ‘supermarket titles such as Waitrose magazine.’ But
nonetheless, he says that much of the production values and editorial standards
of branded journalism are higher than those of the ‘free’ press, and much of the
‘most interesting editorial nowadays is brand owned.’
Dunning explains that all ‘independently owned media’ have ‘vested
interest of an agenda’ – whether political or the ‘choice of ‘juicy’ rather than
important front page stories.’ He continues:
‘In-flight magazines have a vested interest in showing off the airline’s
routes. Does this make them unethical? Maybe; they’re unlikely to focus
on the negative aspects of their destinations. However, they function well
as magazines – BA’s High Life is a good read first, a pamphlet for the
airline second.’
He says that brands will never really own the ‘news journalism’ space, but in the
future there must be ‘more stringent measures in place’ and brand ‘should be
subject to the same standards as a traditional newspaper.’
6. From a corporate perspective, how important is it to be transparent about
who is creating content?
‘If brand journalism is to be successful, it has to be clear where it comes from,’
Bull explains. Cramer say that ‘transparency is important’ but publishers are ‘the
ones who need to worry about the trust of their audience, and who need to be
very clear when content is sponsored.’ ‘Transparency is the name of the game
with brand journalism,’ says Aldax. ‘We proudly state on the front page of the
website and throughout the community that RS is Chevron-sponsored.’ He
continues:
‘In an era of social media and Internet, mainstream media are more often
being called out on their reasons and methods when reporting on stories and
issues… For a brand to be able to effectively join the public dialogue in a
lasting way, it must report not just facts but be clear about motivation.’
41. 41
7. How important is social media when it comes to brand journalism?
Social media is ‘vital’ according to Bull - it ‘is the main channel through which a
brand can engage with its audience. [Brands] must be highly attuned to that
audience, and responsive to it.’ Similarly, Cramer argues that ‘it would be
impossible to understate the importance of social media in brand journalism.’
She notes that
‘In order to reach a wider audience, you are going to need social media.
And that means cultivating an active presence on your chosen channels,
and not just waiting until your blog post is up to share.’
Brotzel also sees it as ‘hugely important’ but notes that email is very underrated.
He explains that brands need to be aware of where their audiences ‘are likely to
live socially’ and then ‘optimise content to give it the best chance of travelling far
socially and so generating earned media for you too.’ Dunning noted that ‘social
media offers brand a pre-engaged audience’ as a result of fans liking and
following, giving them a guaranteed reach for everything they produce.
‘Social media is important in all journalism,’ for Aldax. He says that ‘for
most people these days, social media is the number one way they fetch their
news’ and ‘when it comes to online publishing, the website is no longer more
important than any one social media channel.’ Furthermore, Waddington notes
that ‘brands are building their own forms of social media and networks with
which to share and publish content.’ In this sense he see social media as a
‘channel through which content is published and shared.’
5.2 Conclusion
Having interviewed industry experts and discovered their thoughts and
opinions, several insightful observations were made on the subject of brand
journalism and its role in PR strategy. Key issues unearthed from the interviews
included:
Brand transparency and editorial integrity
Importance of social media as a pre-engaged channel
Authentic and direct communication, rather than fragmented
42. 42
Removing the traditional ‘gatekeeper’ through disintermediation
Influencer relations: the brand as the ‘influencer’
Unlocking expertise from within an organisation
Brand journalism as part of the PR continuum: traditional media relations
still an important part of influence
The majority of responses corresponded with each other, with no real outlier.
Moreover, the responses also supported and expand upon the theoretical
frameworks and debates highlighted in chapter two. A notable uncovering that
all opinion leaders seemed to agree on was the notion brand journalism does not
extensive resource behind it to be successful. Rather, a one person operation
using journalistic instinct, creating value and tailoring their content for a brand’s
audience is all that is required even for the smallest of organisations as a result
of the internet.
43. 43
6.1 Quantitativesurvey
The literature review of chapter two unearthed several key issues regarding
public trust in both business and traditional media. It was therefore necessary to
test these issues empirically, using a public questionnaire. In collecting such
quantitative primary data, comparisons could be made between academic
literature and subjects raised in the expert interviews. The results of the
questionnaire are presented below (full statistics/data see appendix 7).
Fig.3
The questionnaire received a relatively even split between male and female
participants, meaning there was no gender bias in the final result. Studies have
shown that women are more trustworthy than men (Haselhun et al. 2015),
therefore a gender bias would have likely produced a polluted final result.
44. 44
Fig.4
Millennials made up the vast proportion of respondents. Though it was still
possible to compare the response of each age group to the population average,
the result would not be absolutely credible due to the this inconsistency. A major
factor which would have contributed to this was the fact the survey was done
online. As a result of this bias, it was erroneous to single out trends in one single
age group.
45. 45
Fig.5
This survey was very much Euro-centric in terms of its respondents. The forums
and social media groups the survey was posted to had likely influenced this -
though much effort was made in trying to achieve a wide geographical
population.
46. 46
Fig.6
Those aged between 18 – 29, consumed more social media by roughly 10% than
the overall average and less traditional media by over 5%. However, over 60%
of the sample size was 18 – 29, meaning these conclusions may be somewhat
bias. Those of Asian origin also consumed significantly more social media and
significantly less traditional media than the total average, scoring an average of
7.9 and 2.9 respectively.
47. 47
Fig.7
Paid media remains the least trusted channel by a considerable margin, with
only 4 respondents recording a score in the upper third of the trust scale.
Mirroring the findings of the Edelman’s Trust Barometer (2016), digital and
online media proved to be the most trusted by a considerable majority. Those of
Asian origin were also more trustworthy of each channel than the general survey
population. On average, they scored 5% higher on each form of media. This still
represented a notable vary in level of trust but was not conclusive as
respondents of Asian origin comprised only 9% of the total survey population.
However, one of the most significant findings was the closeness of trust in
traditional and brand owned media. The two channels were identical in both
median and standard deviation and differed by only 0.07 points in the weighted
average.
48. 48
Fig.8
Using the CIPR’s definition of PR as ‘what you do, what you say and what others
say about you’ (CIPR, 2016), this questioned tested which factor was the most
the influential in shaping perception of a brand. 21-29 year olds were influenced
more by what brand does/what others say about it and less by what it says than
the average population, though only by small margin. The physical actions of a
brand unsurprisingly ranked as the most influential, scoring a weighted average
of 68%. Registering a full point below this, what a brand says ranked the least
influential. However it must be noted that this still remained an influential factor,
despite scoring less. It was unearthed in the qualitative interviews that ‘earned’
opinion is still an essential part of influence and understanding and these
statistics certainly prove so.
49. 49
A massive 91% said that business is or sometimes is a reliable and trustworthy
source of information. Despite this, only 25% were certain that businesses could
be trustworthy sources of information. Meaning that there is still some
uncertainty and doubtfulness in business as a source of fact and news. It would
have of beneficial to further segment this question into different industries, to
highlight which people considered more trustworthy.
Fig.9
50. 50
A key part of brand journalism is creating a consumer-brand affinity and this
question tested whether branded content would encourage a consumer to return
to the brand. Indeed, 97% agreed that they would or would maybe feel
incentivised to return to a brand if it published content which appealed to them
online. This has confirmed that by publishing audience specific content, brands
give their audience a reason to return to them.
Fig.10
51. 51
‘I trust companies to tell the truth’ recorded the highest standard deviation at
1.16, meaning responses had the greatest amount of spread. This statement was
also the most opposed, with 43% stating they either ‘disagreed’ or ‘somewhat
disagreed.’ With the lowest measured standard deviation, the statement which
respondents most strongly agreed with was: ‘Brands which publish articles and
videos online are more engaging.’ Closely followed by ‘I am sceptical of mass
media’ – which subsequently no participant solely ‘disagreed’ with. An
important influence of product/service purchase still proved to be third party
earned opinion, with 79% stating that they ‘agreed’ or ‘somewhat agreed.’
Statement four also proved that consumers recognise a difference in what
company says and what it actually does. Similarly, over 70% either agreed or
somewhat agreed that what a brands says will affect their interaction with it.
Fig.11
52. 52
Fig.12
With just under 67.16% of respondents agreeing that their trust in traditional
media has decreased over the last five years, these results confirmed the theories
of several academics noted in the literature review. Moreover, it also reinforced
conclusions made in the Edelman’s Trust Barometer (2016), in that the general
public has lost confidence in traditional media as a trustworthy source of news
and information over the past five year. Interestingly, twelve people noted an
increase in trust. If this questionnaire were to be repeated, it would have been of
interest to combine this question with qualitative data to ascertain how and why
this increase had occurred.
53. 53
Fig.13
As expected, brand journalism remains a very much unknown activity to the
general public. 85% were either not aware or unsure of brand journalism.
However, the chances of this 85% having encounter branded content either
online or in print is extremely likely. Despite opinion leaders all agreeing that
content must be labeled and brands transparent that the content is theirs, it is
likely branded content would gone unnoticed these participant.
54. 54
Fig.14
Only 13 people responded to the final question asking for those aware of brand
journalism to give an example, with only 6 of these respondents giving actual
examples of brand journalism. Further highlighting that the average consumer is
neither aware nor knowledgeable of brand journalism. However,
acknowledgment of brand journalism in the third sector provided something to
be considered if future research was to be carried out. Most interestingly, one
respondent noted that they ‘tend to avoid content that [they] know is corporate
sponsored.’ This feeling of suspicion and lack of trust that surrounds branded
media is perhaps the biggest hurdle businesses need to overcome.
55. 55
6.2 Conclusion
This questionnaire cemented speculations over deteriorating public trust in
traditional media. An overwhelming amount of respondents noted a decrease in
their confidence in media as a trustworthy institution over the past five years.
With events such as the Leveson inquiry, it is perhaps not hard to understand
this sentiment. This decline in trust is of great significance to brands that, as a
reaction, are publishing transparent and engaging editorial content online.
Moreover, while respondents remained very much skeptical of brands as
credible sources of news, brand owned and traditional media were considered to
be virtually identical in terms of trust. However, earned opinion still remains a
highly influential drive for consumers, shaping their perceptions and
interactions with a brand. Limitations were very much apparent in this survey,
primarily due to the large number of European and 21-29 year old respondents.
This was likely influenced by that fact the survey was conducted online and
posted in primarily European-centric forums and social media spaces. To make
more meaningful cross tabulations and comparisons it would be useful to aim for
a more representative sample population.
There is a definite thirst among consumers for engaging and bespoke
content, as evidenced by this survey. However, the public remains very much
wary of business and is somewhat unsettled on whether or not it can be a
trustworthy source of news and information.
56. 56
7.1 Conclusions
This study aimed to understand the reasons behind why brands are turning to a
reliance on owned as opposed to earned media in their PR strategies to assert
their reputation and influence their publics, as well as analyse the ways they
employ branded content to communicate. In doing so it has provided a strong
case for brands of all sizes to re-think their owned media strategy and publish
compelling, audience specific editorial content to their online platforms.
Brand journalism must be part of a continuum if it is to be successful. Web
2.0 had reduced the intermediaries between brands and consumers; if brands
truly want to engage their publics, they must communicate with them directly -
not through a media middleman. However, earned media still remains an
essential part of reputation management and influence and, despite the
disintegration of traditional media, its value must not be overlooked.
In the age of media snackers, shortening attention spans and with a
greater multiplicity of online voices present than ever before, interdisciplinary
communication is key. Brand journalism presents a momentous opportunity for
brands to cut through the noise, using their own voice to communicate directly
and authentically. However, brands must adhere to the same, perhaps even
stricter, guidelines as traditional media in order to remain both transparent and
ethical. Moreover, social media is vital to brand journalism, as it is for all
journalism. Socially fueled content produces brand advocates and incentivises
consumers to return to a brand by giving added value.
The public is hungry for engaging and authentic multimedia content, with
their appetites starved by the absence of high quality special interest journalism.
Dwindling resource and falling numbers of journalists in the media has opened
the door for brands to cement themselves as vendors of branded content in
conjunction to their everyday business. Business can harness the public’s
increasing confidence in it as a trustworthy purveyor of information, by using
transparent and honest brand journalism to further appease public reservation
and wariness. If brands truly want to differentiate themselves and remain valid
to consumers, they must undertake authentic engagement via brand journalism.
57. 57
7.2 Recommendations
Dave Samson (2016), General Manager of Public Affair at Chevron, recently
stated in an interview that PR people of tomorrow “need to acquire news skills
that augment and build on the skills that have historically been important to our
business.” While there will always be a place for quality news journalism, PR
must take heed of the changing media landscape and prove its worth. The
modern PR practitioner must adopt a journalistic mindset to communicate
directly, authentically and transparently with their publics in order to be heard
through the noise. Brand journalists will likely be the future of online content,
creating editorial that fills in the gaps left behind by the ever-thinning media.
In a feature for PR Week, “next generation comms leaders” predicted the
future of PR practice. Elizabeth Mercer of FleishmanHillard stated that “PRs will
produce more content than journalists” in the future (Harrington, 2015).
Similarly, Jessie Bland, content strategist at WE, predicted that “as brands further
establish themselves as content engines, owned… will become just as – if not
more – important than earned content” (Harrington, 2015). This study has
demonstrated that in order to survive in the ever evolving media landscape, PR
is finding new ways to communicate and influence. Media disintermediation is,
as Waddington (2015) explains, giving new ways for PR practitioners to assert
their value and, as a result, PR practitioners must acquire fresh skills in order to
prove their worth.
58. 58
Bibliography
American Society of News Editors (2015) 2015 Census [online]. Available from:
http://asne.org/content.asp?pl=121&sl=415&contentid=415 [Accessed 10th June 2015].
Baetzgen, A. & Tropp, J. (2015) ‘How Can Brand-Owned Media Be Managed? Exploring the
Managerial Success Factors of the New Interrelation Between Brands and Media,’ International
Journal on Media Management, 17:3, 135-155.
Bailey, C. (2014) An Overview of Paid, Earned and Owned Media [online]. Available from:
http://xen.com.au/overview-paid-earned-owned-media/ [Accessed 3rd June 2016].
Barbour, R. S. (2012) Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail
wagging the dog? British Medical Journal, 332, 1115–7.
Beaugez, J. (2014) Chevron's Richmond Standard news site draws criticism [online]. Available
from:
http://www.prdaily.com/Main/Articles/Chevrons_Richmond_Standard_news_site_draws_critici_
17439.aspx [Accessed 12th July 2016].
Bell, J (2005) Doing Your Research Project (4th ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Boncheck, M. (2014) ‘Making Sense of Owned Media,’ Harvard Business Review [online]. Available
from: https://hbr.org/2014/10/making-sense-of-owned-media [Accessed 8th August 2016].
Bouchard, T. J. (1976) Unobtrusive measures: An inventory of uses, Sociological Methods and
Research, 4, 267-300.
Brown, R. (2012) ‘Brands as Media,’ in S. Waddington (ed.), Share This: The Social Media
Handbook for PR Professionals. Chichester: Wiley, 113-119.
Bryman, A. (1984) The Debate about Quantitative and Qualitative Research: A Question of
Method or Epistemology?, The British Journal of Sociology, 35:1, 75-92.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011) Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bull, A. (2013) Brand Journalism. Oxford: Routledge.
Buttry, S. (2015) Brand Journalism – Book Review, Electronic News, 9:1, 69-71.
Carrol, R. (2014) Chevron's one-man newsroom defends his work: 'They considerme Voldemort'
[online]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/nov/07/chevron-
richmond-standard-news-oil-california-refinery-election [Accessed 13th July 2016]
Castiloo (2016) Red Bull and Reuters Team Up [online] Available from:
http://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/31/red-bull-and-reuters-team-up-why.html [Accessed 25th
July 2016].
Chevron (2015) Richmond Standard Home Page [online]. Available from:
http://richmondstandard.com/ [Accessed 12rd July 2016]
Clarke, L. (2016) Stomach Pain, Headaches And Sleep Problems – We Reveal The Hidden Dangers Of
Energy Drinks [online]. Available from: https://www.thesun.co.uk/living/1483621/stomach-
pain-headaches-and-sleep-problems-we-reveal-the-hidden-dangers-of-energy-drinks/ [Accessed
20th July 2016]
Cooley, C.H. (1909) Social Organization: A study of the larger mind. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 61-65.
Cramer, T. (2016) Inside Content Marketing. Medford, NJ: CyberAge Books
Davies, G., Chun, R., Da Silva, R.V. & Roper, S. (2003) Corporate Reputation and Competitiveness,
New York: Routledge
59. 59
Dietrich, G. (2014) Spin Sucks. New York: Pearson Education.
Dowling, G. (1986) Managing your corporate reputation, Industrial Marketing Management, 15,
109-115.
Edelman (2016) 2016 Edelman Trust Barometer - The Opportunity for Business [online] Available
from: http://www.edelman.com/insights/intellectual-property/2016-edelman-trust-
barometer/opportunity-for-business/ [Accessed 28th May 2016].
Edmonds, R. (2015) Newspaper industry lost 3,800 full-time editorial professionals in 2014
[online]. Available from: http://www.poynter.org/2015/newspaper-industry-lost-3800-full-
time-editorial-professionals-in-2014/360633/ [Accessed 10th June 2015].
Elmer, P. (2011) ‘Public Relations and Storytelling,’ in C. Hodges & L. Edwards (ed.s), Public
Relations, Society & Culture. 47-60.
Filloux, F. (2014) Brace For The Corporate Journalism Wave [online]. Available from:
https://mondaynote.com/brace-for-the-corporate-journalism-wave-
9b590f255b1c#.8r0gfmm13 [Accessed 20th June 2016].
Forbes (2016) The Most Valuable Brands in the World [online]. Available from:
http://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/list/ [Accessed 2nd August 2016].
Foremski, T. (2010) When Every Company Is A Media Company [online] Available from:
http://www.everycompanyisamediacompany.com/every-company-is-a-media-
/2010/03/welcome-when-every-company-is-a-media-company.html#more [Accessed 31st May
2016].
Golloway, J.G. (2013). Deliver us from definitions: A fresh way of looking at public relations.
Public Relations Inquiry. 2 (2). 147-159.
Grinapol, C. (2015) Profile Ground breakers for The Red Bulletin Magazine [online] Available from:
http://www.adweek.com/fishbowlny/profile-groundbreakers-for-the-red-bulletin-
magazine/340894 [Accessed 25th July 2016].
Handley, A. (2014) Everybody Writes: Your Go-To Guide to Creating Ridiculously Good Content –
Interview with Ann Handley [online] Available from:
http://www.toprankblog.com/2014/09/everybody-writes-ann-handley/ [Accessed 7th June
2015].
Harrington, J. (2015) The future of PR: Watch PRWeek's 30 Under 30 give their predictions for 2030
[online].
Available from: http://www.prweek.com/article/1367229/future-pr-watch-prweeks-30-30-
give-predictions-2030#FuZ5LXFcOAMpfWyx.99 [Accessed 20th August 2016].
Hartley, J. (2004) ‘Case Study Research,’ in C. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.). Essential Guide To
Qualitative Methods In Organizational Research, London: Sage. 323-333.
Haselhuhna, M. P., Kennedy, J. A., Krayc, L. J., Van Zantc, A. B. & Schweitzerd, M. E (2015) Gender
differences in trust dynamics, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 104–109.
Herald Scotland (2016) Call for Ban on Energy Drinks for Children Due to Health Risks [online]
Available from:
http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/14633342.Call_for_ban_on_energy_drinks_for_children_d
ue_to_health_risks/?ref=rss [Accessed 25th July 2016].
Jick, T. D. (1979) Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action,
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24:4, 601-611.
60. 60
Kimmel, L. (2012) What Brands Can Learn From Red Bulls Evolution To A Media Company [online]
Available from: http://edelman.ca/2012/06/07/what-brands-can-learn-from-red-bulls-
evolution-to-a-media-company/ [Accessed 25th July 2016].
Kowai, E. (2016) Four Ways to Make Brand Journalism Work for Your Business [online]. Available
from: https://magazine.prowly.com/2016/04/19/four-ways-make-brand-journalism-work-
business/ [Accessed 4th August 2016].
Lauchlan, S. (2015) General Electric powers up digital growth on the Industrial Internet [online]
Available from: http://diginomica.com/2015/10/05/general-electric-powers-up-digital-growth-
on-the-industrial-internet/ [Accessed 2nd August 2016].
Lazauskas, J. (2015) Tomas Kellner Reveals How He Built the Worlds Best Brand Mag [online].
Available from: https://contently.com/strategist/2015/02/11/we-believe-in-stories-ge-reports-
tomas-kellner-reveals-how-he-built-the-worlds-best-brand-mag/[Accessed 13th July 2016].
Leberecht (2009) Multimedia 2.0: From paid media to earned media to owned media and back
[online]. Available from: http://www.cnet.com/uk/news/multimedia-2-0-from-paid-media-to-
earned-media-to-owned-media-and-back/ [Accessed 19th June 2016].
Levine, M. (2003) Guerrilla PR Wired: Waging a Successful Publicity Campaign Online, Offline, and
Everywhere In Between, London: McGraw-Hill.
Lieb, R. (2012) Content Marketing: Think Like a Publisher—How to Use Content to Market Online
and in Social Media. Indianapolis: Que.
Lofgren, D. G. (2014) Telling your brand story. Leveraging the power of brand journalism,
Marketing Health Services, 34:4, 10-11.
Lyons , B. J. (2016) Trial set over GE pollution of Hudson River [online]. Available from:
http://www.timesunion.com/tuplus-local/article/Trial-set-over-GE-pollution-of-Hudson-River-
7235533.php [Accessed 9th August 2016].
McDermott, C. (2003) Corporate Storytelling: Cross the Paid, Earned, and Owned Divide [online].
Available from: http://contentmarketinginstitute.com/2013/05/corporate-storytelling-cross-
the-paid-earned-and-owned-divide/ [Accessed 2nd August 2016].
Mindock, C. & Sirota, D. (2016) Before Ending Hudson River Cleanup, General Electric Gave Big
Money To New York Lawmakers [online]. Available from: http://www.ibtimes.com/political-
capital/ending-hudson-river-cleanup-general-electric-gave-big-money-new-york-lawmakers
[Accessed 12th August 2016].
Morris, T. & Goldsworthy, S. (2012) PR Today: The Authoritative Guide to Public Relations.
Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mostafa, R. B., Lages, C. R., Shabbir, H. A. & Thwaites, D. (2015) Corporate Image: A Service
Recovery Perspective, Journal of Service Research, 18:4, 468-483.
New York Times Customer Insight Group (2011) The Psychology of Sharing: Why People Share
Online? [online]. Available from: http://nytmarketing.whsites.net/mediakit/pos/ [Accessed 19th
June 2016].
Nielson (2013) Nielsen: Earned Advertising Remains Most Credible Among Consumers; Trust In
Owned Advertising On The Rise [online] Available from: http://www.nielsen.com/uk/en/press-
room/2013/nielsen--earned-advertising-remains-most-credible-among-consumer.html
[Accessed 5th June 2016].
Nielson (2015) Global Trust In Advertising [online] Available from:
http://www.nielsen.com/uk/en/insights/reports/2015/global-trust-in-advertising-2015.html
[Accessed 5th June 2016].
61. 61
Njie, B. & Asimiran, S. (2014) Case Study as a Choice in Qualitative Methodology, Journal of
Research & Method in Education, 4:1, 35-40.
O’Toole (2013) Brands As Publishers Inside The Content Marketing Trend [online]. Available
from: http://curve.gettyimages.com/article/brands-as-publishers-inside-the-content-marketing-
trend/brands-as-publishers-inside-the-content-marketing-trend?pdf [Accessed 19th June 2016].
Oxford English Dictionaries (2012) Paperback Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Baines, P., Egan, J. & Jefkins, F. (2005) Public Relations: Contemporary Issues and Techniques,
Oxford: Elsevier.
Pepulla, S. (2014) Why You Need to Stop Using the Term ‘Brand Journalism’ [online]. Available
from: https://contently.com/strategist/2014/10/13/why-you-need-to-stop-using-the-term-
brand-journalism/ [Accessed 10th June 2015].
Philips, D. (2009). Online Public Relations: A Practical Guide to Developing Online Strategy (2nd ed.)
London: Kogan Page.
Ramlochan, S. (2015) What’s the Difference Between Content Marketing and Brand Journalism?
[online]. Available from: http://www.prnewswire.com/blog/whats-the-difference-between-
content-marketing-and-brand-journalism-12173.html [Accessed 31st May 2016].
Samson, D. (2016) The Influence 100 Report – Dave Samson Profile [online]. Available from:
http://www.holmesreport.com/ranking-and-data/influence-100/the-influence-100-
2016/profiles/dave-samson [Accessed 29th August 2016].
Scott, D.M. (2011) The New Rules of Marketing & PR. Hoboken: Wiley.
SF Gate (2009) Hearst wants 'significant' cuts at Chronicle [online]. Available from:
http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Hearst-wants-significant-cuts-at-Chronicle-3171143.php
[Accessed 3rd August 2016].
Sheldrake, P. (2011). The Business of Influence: Reframing Marketing and PR for the Digital Age.
Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley.
Sheldrake, P. (2011b) Align Your Stakeholder-Facing Functions to an Influence Strategy Balanced
Scorecard Report, Harvard Business Publishing; 13:4.
Sheldrake, P. (2012) ‘Earned media’ is not a synonym for public relations [online]. Available from:
http://www.philipsheldrake.com/2012/04/earned-media-is-not-a-synonym-for-public-
relations/ [Accessed 31st May 2016].
Sheldrake, P. (2013) A Measure of Influence, Communication World, 30:1, 20-23.
Solis, B. (2009) Putting the Public back in Public Relations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press.
Spillet, R. (2015) Insurance worker, 28, who spends £75 a week on energy drinks has heart attack
after downing EIGHT cans of Red Bull [online]. Available from:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3354094/Insurance-worker-heart-attack-downing-
EIGHT-energy-drinks.html [Accessed 24th July 2016].
TCC (2015) The True Cost of Chevron [online] Available from: http://truecostofchevron.com/
[Accessed 12rd July 2016].
Waddington S. & Earl S. (2012) Brand Anarchy: Managing Corporate Reputation. London:
Bloomsbury.
62. 62
Waddington, S. (2015) #FuturePRoof: an uplifting vision for the future of public relations [online].
Available from: http://wadds.co.uk/2015/11/01/futureproof-uplifting-vision-future-public-
relations/ [Accessed 25th August 2016].
Waddington, S. (2016) What is public relations? [online]. Available from:
http://wadds.co.uk/2016/04/28/public-relations/ [Accessed 3rd June 2016].
Wegert, T. (2015) The New Red Bulls: Why Every Big Brand Is Launching a Media Company
[online]. Available from: http https://contently.com/strategist/2015/06/22/the-new-red-bulls-
why-every-big-brand-is-launching-a-media-company/ [Accessed 2nd August 2016].
Whenman (2015) Reputation and the Digital PLC, in S. Hall (ed.), FuturePRoof [ebook]. 49-54.
Available from: http://www.futureproofingcomms.co.uk/ [Accessed 3rd July 2016].
Wright, K. B. (2005) Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of
Online Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey
Services, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10:3 [online]. Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00259.x [Accessed 6th August 2016].
Zelm, A, (2014) A Giant Leap for Content Marketing: The Evolution of Brand Journalism [online].
Available from: http://www.kunocreative.com/blog/bid/90554/A-Giant-Leap-for-Content-
Marketing-The-Evolution-of-Brand-Journalism [Accessed 6th August 2016].
