Brian Massie Portfolio

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BRIAN MASSIE: COMMUNICATION PORTFOLIO
Included in this document is a sample of communication works prepared by Brian Massie.
Some of these documents have been included with express and limited permission by the
organizations for which the documents were prepared. Permission must be obtained prior to
reprinting or publishing any of the documents included in this portfolio. Opening and/or
reading this document constitutes agreement with these terms.

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Brian Andrew Massie
48 Yeager Place, Waynesboro, VA 22980
540-383-9416
brianmassie79@yahoo.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RÉSUMÉ ........................................................................................................................................ 3
CRISIS COMMUNICATION: THE 1973-87 GM FULL-SIZE LIGHT TRUCK FUEL TANK
CONTROVERSY........................................................................................................................... 9
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ROI,
STRATEGIES, AND TACTICS .................................................................................................. 26
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: LEVI STRAUSS RED TAB FOUNDATION
SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAM EVALUATION ........................................................................... 32
JOURNALISM: EXAMPLES OF AGENDA SETTING ............................................................ 36
LEGAL & POLITICAL COMMUNICATION: LIFE AFTER CITIZENS UNITED................. 41
NON-PROFIT COMMUNICATION STRATEGY EVALUATION: BLUE RIDGE
COMMUNITY COLLEGE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION ................................................. 51
SOCIAL MEDIA AND SEO: CLASSIC MOTORSPORTS....................................................... 70
VISUAL MARKETING: BOGAN’S DISTILLERY PRODUCT LABEL ................................. 78
VISUAL MARKETING: CAPTAIN SAM’S LANDING CONCERT CALENDAR................. 79
VISUAL MARKETING: REC*IT PHONE APP POSTER......................................................... 81

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RÉSUMÉ
EDUCATION
MA: Journalism and Mass Communication 2015
Concentration: Public Relations
Kent State University, Kent, OH
BS: Communication 2012
Concentration: Corporate Communication & Public Advocacy
Minor: English
Radford University, Radford, VA
AAS: College Transfer 2010
AAS: Computer & Electronics Technology 2009
Master Project: Retrofitting a Classic Car with Fuel Injection and ABS
Blue Ridge Community College, Weyers Cave, VA
AWARDS
2014 Best of Waynesboro Awards for Communication Services
Waynesboro Business Recognition Award Program, Waynesboro, VA
2nd
in Communication for "Corvair: Disaster and Redemption"
Big South Undergraduate Research Symposium, Flat Rock, SC (2012)
PROFILES & PORTFOLIOS
Academia https://kentstate.academia.edu/BrianMassie
Most downloaded: “Life after Citizens United”
Facebook https://www.facebook.com/MassieCommunication
Kent State Portfolio https://sites.google.com/a/kent.edu/brianmassie/
LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/in/brianmassie
ResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian_Massie
Most downloaded: “Corvair: Disaster and Redemption”
PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS
Association of College Unions International
Chartered Institute of Public Relations
National Communication Association
Public Relations Society of America

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PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Communication Consultant - Taylor Business Solutions Jan 2015 - Present
TBS offerings:
 Financial evaluations such as bookkeeping practices, IRS filings, and leverage utilization
 Market analysis of potential/current product & service offerings, marketing
methods/strategies/tactics, and sales environment
 Mass, Organizational, and Personal Communication assessment and training
 On-site training in individual, small group, and workshop formats
Design and implement communication plans and actions. Design visual materials including
brochures, posters, and signage; design multi-platform media campaigns, perform market
analysis, etc. Help businesses launch, maintain, and evaluate their public communication systems
and platforms.
Communication Consultant - American Timing Group Jan 2007 - Dec 2014
Perform, delegate, manage, and/or review all aspects of services offered. Seek out new clients,
and maintain relationships with existing clients.
 Advertisement: design ads using Publisher, Picasa, Photoshop, etc., facilitate distribution
 Brand Development: analyze and develop standards to enhance brand recognition
 Event Management: plan, design, and coordinate events to support organizational goals
 Government Advocacy: build public support and represent organizations to officials
 Media Relations: identify and engage with relevant organizations and journalists
 Organizational Analysis: study organizations to find ways to improve communication
 Public Relations: engage with stakeholders, monitor conversations using media dashboards
 Research: customer satisfaction, markets, patent, trademark, etc.
 Social Media: build/develop organizational presence via Facebook, Twitter, etc.
 Training: teach techniques, strategies, and tools
Helped launch and maintain mass communication systems for numerous organizations. On-call
to perform marketing and communication services. Clients included everything from small bars
to a vitamin company to NASCAR. Booked and promoted more than one thousand client events.
For long-term clients, average ROI was more than 600% after 6-months.
Grant Writer & Project Assistant - Radford University Feb 2012 – Apr 2012
Duties: Plan and develop programs, agendas, budgets, and services in compliance with grant
stipulations. Plan, coordinate, and ensure implementation of relevant support services such as
equipment, facilities, promotional materials, security, and special needs requirements. Work with
members of internal and external media to maximize exposure.

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Co-wrote a grant with funding from the Japan Center for Global Partnerships and Radford
University. Supervised by Provost Dr. Sam Minner, the work was essentially performed by
myself and, with less than one month to book, promote, and deliver, delivered a series of well-
received events that were covered by regional media and served more than 2,000 attendees.
Chief Financial Officer - Calf Mountain Jam Oct 2000 - Jul 2007
Manage daily and long term financial affairs. Activities include bookkeeping, tax returns, capital
investment research and recommendations, assess the financial return of product lines, identify
potential and emerging markets, and negotiate with key players to gain access.
Helped expand operations to include much of the eastern United States and western Europe.
Minimized tax liability and maximized PR value through substantial charity work. Promoted
more than 1,000 events. Built and maintained control of social media operations and regularly
distributed messages to more than 80,000.
Advertising Manager - Calf Mountain Jam Oct 1999 - Oct 2000
Build brand awareness and participation. Design and distribute public messages using
conventional media, signage, media relations, press releases, brochures, and digital formats.
Increased market share by over 300% via innovative new advertising campaigns and promotional
product lines. Developed the organization’s social media strategies and tactics.
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE
Student Health Advocate - Radford University Oct 2010 – Feb 2012
Duties: Work with RU personnel to identify health concerns, determine solutions, and advocate
for policy and organizational culture changes. Organize and/or leading meetings and events,
creating and distributing educational and promotional materials, and performing qualitative and
quantitative analysis to evaluate results and any unforeseen side effects of initiatives taken.
Researched, developed, and advocated for a multi-point plan to curb binge drinking. Results
show increased retention and graduation, as well as decreased rate of intoxicant-related injuries.
Journalist - The Tartan Mar 2011 – Oct 2011
Duties: Research and write interesting and relevant news stories for newspaper publication.
Write using AP format. Provide evidence of claims as requested. Follow paper’s guidelines.
Used personal connections to gain inside information. Wrote a series of articles about health,
safety, discrimination, legal concerns, and crime.

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Chair of Off-Campus Student Council - Radford University Sep 2010 – Sep 2011
Duties: Act as Real Estate Liaison between varieties of stakeholders. Identify, accrue, and
disperse pertinent information, priorities, and values between about 6,000 off-campus tenants,
university officials, property management companies, and city officials. Mediate disputes
between student tenants and property management companies.
Was a member of the Radford City/Radford University Joint Committee which included the
Radford City Mayor, Chief of Police, members of City Council, major stakeholders, and ranking
officials of RU. Made recommendations to adjust how off-campus student problems were
addressed. Using strategic communication campaigns, local resident complaints about rowdy
college students was reduced significantly, incidents involving the police were significantly
reduced, and student/landlord relations improved significantly.
PUBLICATIONS
Massie, B. (2015). It Starts at Home: The Why and How of Internal Corporate Social
Responsibility. In B. Greene (Ed.), Corporate Social Responsibility Guidebook (Vol. 7).
New York: PR News.
Massie, B. (2014, April 11). Setting the Stage: Black Operations as a Communication Tactic.
Graduate School Symposium. Kent: Kent State University.
Massie, B. (2012, April 14). The Corvair: Disaster and Redemption. Big South Undergraduate
Research Symposium. Rock Hill: Winthrop University.
Massie, B. (2011). Car Building in the Shenandoah Valley. (R. Cox, Ed.) Radford, VA, USA:
Appalachian Regional Studies Center.
Massie, B. (2011, December 10). Keynote Address. Radford University Winter 2011
Commencement. Radford: Radford University.
Massie, B. (2011, October 5). SGA active in representing RU. Retrieved from The Tartan:
http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=2117
Massie, B. (2011, September 27). Home: Change in voting locations. Retrieved from The Tartan:
Massie, B. (2011, September 21). R-SPaCE: Behind the scenes of student programming and
campus events. Retrieved from The Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=1857
Massie, B. (2011, September 21). The price of silence. Retrieved from The Tartan:

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Massie, B. (2011, April 29). Chick-fil-A under scrutiny from students. Retrieved from The
Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=1459
Massie, B. (2011, April 19). SGA gives approval to Good Samaritan Policy. Retrieved from The
Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=1298
Massie, B. (2011, April 12). Social norming changes perceptions about drinking. Retrieved from
The Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=1298
Massie, B. (2011, March 22). SGA votes to approve revision extending university add/drop
policy. Retrieved from The Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=398
Massie, B.,& Handy, T. (2011, March 22). Good Samaritan Policy could save lives. Retrieved
from The Tartan: http://www.rutartan.com/wordpress/?p=400
SAMPLE FEATURES
Auerbach, D. (2013, January 25). How to handle an ethical dilemma at work. Retrieved from
The WorkBuzz - powered by Career Builder: http://www.theworkbuzz.com/on-the-j
ob/ethical-dilemma-at-work/
Bowman, K. (2013, January 18). Planning, Stamina Needed for Marathoning and O&G
Exploration, Production. Retrieved from RigZone:
http://www.rigzone.com/news/oil_gas/a/123532/Planning_Stamina_Needed_for_Maratho
ning_and_OG_Exploration_Production
Brown, A. (2016, February 29). Fitting In: Alternatives to After-Hours Socializing with Co-
Workers. Retrieved from The Network Journal: http://www.tnj.com/career/career-
advice/fitting-alternatives-to-after-hours-socializing-co-workers
Crowe, A. (2013, January 15). See A Car On A TV Show You Like? It Could Be Yours. Retrieved
from AutoInsurace Center: http://www.autoinsurancecenter.com/see-a-car-on-a-tv-show-
you-like-it-could-be-yours.htm
DiUlio, N. (2013, February 20). Women just as likely as men to get into drunk driving crashes.
Retrieved from Auto Insurance Quotes: http://www.autoinsurancequotes.com/women-
and-drunk_driving
Dobrow, L. (2013, March 7). When A Customer Trashes You Online. Retrieved from AARP -
Work Reimagined: http://workreimagined.aarp.org/start-a-business/when-a-customer-t
rashes-you-online/

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Hagerty, K. (2012, March 30). Students Win Grant to Launch Japanese Awareness Week.
Retrieved from Radford University:
http://www.radford.edu/content/radfordcore/home/news/releases/2012/March/japanese-
awareness.html
Hastings, R. R. (2012, December 13). High Morale Doesn’t Guarantee Retention. Retrieved
from Society for Human Resources Management:
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/employeerelations/articles/Pages/Employee-Morale-
Retention.aspx
Lusinski, N. (2015, November 6). What To Say Instead of Ghosting Someone. Retrieved from
Bustle: http://www.bustle.com/articles/121763-what-to-say-instead-of-ghosting-someone
Shannon-Karasik, C. (2012, November 20). 5 Tips for College Students Who Use Twitter.
Retrieved from Campus Explorer: http://www.campusexplorer.com/college-advice-
tips/356AEA74/5-Tips-for-College-Students-Who-Use-Twitter/
Shannon-Karasik, C. (2012, November 20). 5 Ways to Avoid Embarrassing Yourself on
Facebook. Retrieved from Campus Explorer: http://www.campusexplorer.com/college-
advice-tips/AE7E6E28/5-Ways-to-Avoid-Embarrassing-Yourself-on-Facebook/
Shannon-Karasik, C. (2012, November 20). 7 Things College Students Should Know About
Social Media. Retrieved from Campus Explorer:
http://www.campusexplorer.com/college-advice-tips/7D41FD16/7-Things-College-
Students-Should-Know-About-Social-Media/
Thomas, J. (2015, November 18). Top 25 Sales Training Videos – Examples from the Pros.
Retrieved from Fit Small Business: http://fitsmallbusiness.com/sales-training-videos/
Virtual Conversations Lead to Recording Dilemmas. (2013, January 30). Retrieved from Society
for Human Resources Management:
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/employeerelations/articles/pages/virtual-
conversations-recording-dilemmas.aspx
Williams, T. (2012, April 6). RU student pulls off Japanese Awareness week. Retrieved from
Roanoke Times: http://blogs.roanoke.com/theburgs/features/2012/04/06/ru-student-pulls-
off-japanese-awareness-week/
Wilson, M. (2013, January 11). U. of California bails out quickly on new logo. Retrieved from
Ragan.com - news and ideas for communicators:
http://www.ragan.com/Main/Articles/U_of_California_bails_out_quickly_on_new_logo_
46046.aspx

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CRISIS COMMUNICATION: THE 1973-87 GM FULL-SIZE LIGHT TRUCK FUEL
TANK CONTROVERSY
Introduction
Products failures, especially when they accompany gross injury and/or death, are a major
challenge for any organization. The more technically complex the product, the easier it is for
people to be confused or susceptible to the persuasion of others, even if the persuaders aren’t
engineers or know the first thing about the product. There are a lot of interests at play, some with
hidden agendas; all of which may cause tremendous challenges for a public relations person.
When people think of problematic fuel tanks they often think of the Ford Pinto, a fiery explosion
on impact, and big greedy corporations without a single care for consumer safety. Some of the
same people and groups that went after Ford for the Pinto went after GM for their 3rd
generation,
1973-87, pickup truck. The boiling point came in 1992 and the matter continued to be a problem,
image and legal, for years to come.
To examine the case, one must look at the role of Government in the proper context, the
technical aspects in question, and the roles that the media and lawyers play. Each of these areas
should be addressed by public relations practitioners when dealing with a product failure issue.

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Government
A Brief History
1965 was a watershed year in the way automobile design and production were controlled by the
federal government. An ambitious young teacher and lawyer from Connecticut named Ralph
Nader went to work for then Assistant Secretary of Labor Daniel Patrick Moynihan. With his
growing political clout, Nader made friends with CT Sen. Abraham Ribicoff. Ribicoff just
happened to Chair the subcommittee handling the issues of vehicle, traffic, and highway safety.
Robert Kennedy was also involved and the whole thing was on national television.
This newfound clout and national attention helped propel his book, Unsafe at Any Speed,
published the same year, into the national spotlight. In the book he accused the auto industry of
intentionally and knowingly building unsafe automobiles. Every chapter points a finger at
different aspect of the industry. For example, the Chevrolet Corvair was the subject of Chapter 1
and Nader claimed they car was a death machine on wheels due to its rear suspension design.
Most Americans aren’t engineers and almost no politician has a background in engineering.
Some of the claims made by Nader and others were valid while other claims were sensational.
GM became deeply concerned and began having Nader followed and investigated. Headed up by
former FBI agent Vincent Gillen, multiple agents were assigned to track Nader and question his
friends. Guillen told the fellow agents that the assignment ‘was to investigate Nader’s life and
current activities, ‘to determine what makes him tick,’ examining ‘his real interest in safety, his
supporters if any, his politics, his marital status, his friends, his women, boys, etc., drinking,
dope, jobs, in fact all facets of his life.’” (Doyle, 2013) The goal was to find something that
would “shut him up.” (Coleman, 1997)
The move backfired because Nader noticed he was being followed and that people he knew were
being questioned. He then had articles published in the Washington Post and The New Republic
which spoke of the claims. Then, two agents who were following him trespassed on federal
grounds and were caught. (Borger, 2004) GM CEO James Roche, GM’s general counsel
Aloysius Power, and others involved in the Nader investigation were called before the Senate
and forced to admit the wrongdoing. (Federal Role in Traffic Safety, 1966)
The fight was over. Rather than combatting Nader’s claims with engineers and good public
relations, GM tried something different and it didn’t work. The scandal encouraged Congress to
overwhelming adopt nearly every proposed measure to regulate the design and construction of
automobiles. The National Traffic of 1966 and Motor Vehicle Safety Act and Highway Safety
Act of 1966 created several agencies which would be combined into the NHTSA in 1970.
The NHTSA tested the Corvair against Nader’s claims. As it turns out, claims about the car
being inherently unsafe were proved false. Had GM used independent engineers and proper PR
techniques to change the public discourse, it could’ve been a different story. (PB 211-015:
Evaluation of the 1960-1963 Corvair Handling and Stability, 1972)

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NHTSA
By 1971, the NHTSA was in full swing. Every few weeks they were tacking on more and more
regulations, standards, and testing protocols. (NHTSA: 1971) This was the year GM started
federal testing its pending 1973 models for the Fall, 1972 launch. By test time, the NHTSA had
already developed a set of standards by which vehicles would be measured for crash safety.
Regulation
The relevant rule to this case is as follows:
“Standard No. 301, Fuel system integrity, sets performance requirements for the fuel systems of
vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 4,536 kg (10,000 pounds) or less...In the
side impact test, a 1,814 kg (4,000 pound) barrier moving at 32 km/h (20 mph) is guided into the
side of a stationary test vehicle. The standard sets three separate limits on fuel spillage from
crash-tested vehicles:� 28 grams (1 ounce) by weight, during the time period beginning with the
start of the impact and ending with the cessation of vehicle motion; a total of 142 grams (5
ounces) by weight during the 5-minute time period beginning with the cessation of vehicle
motion; and 28 grams (1 ounce) by weight during any 1-minute interval in the 25-minute period
beginning with the end of the 5-minute period.” (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Fuel
Systems Integrity, 1995)
Safety in Context
“Compared to what?” and “At what cost?” and “What hard evidence do you have?” are three
important questions one can ask when considering a policy, judgement, or perspective.
(Interview with Dr. Thomas Sowell, 2005) Because it is impossible to get into the minds of every
driver to see if they are rampaging maniacs or civil & dutiful drivers, the best answer to
“Compared to what?” and “What hard evidence do you have?” considers the fatality rate of
drivers of different vehicles. This data from NHTSA answers those questions as much as is
reasonable given the limitations of data analysis.
Fatal Crash Rate for Side Impact Crashes (per 10,000 registered vehicle years)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
Chrysler full-size trucks 1.162 Ford light trucks 1.824
Ford full-size trucks 1.446 Nissan light trucks 2.212
GM full-size trucks 1.514 Toyota light trucks 2.347
Passenger cars (avg.) 1.652 Chrysler light trucks 2.455
(Olson, The Most Dangerous Vehicle On the Road, 1993)

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Recall
On April 9, 1993, the NHTSA called on GM to voluntarily recall all of trucks. They cited the
Office of Defect Investigation’s claim that the design resulted in 5-6 more fatalities per year in
severe but otherwise survivable crashes when compared to a Ford truck of the same year. The
letter invited GM to submit reasons for not recalling the trucks if that’s what GM chose to do.
GM responded by sending a 50-page study supporting the safety of its trucks.
The NHTSA continued its investigation and in October of 1994, Federico Pena, Secretary of
Transportation, issued a statement that the trucks were defective. The response was surprising.
In a rare show of support for a competitor and the industry as a whole, the CEOs from Ford,
Chrysler, and GM wrote and sent a letter of protest to President Bill Clinton in November, 1994.
“The practical result of the Secretary’s decision is that compliance of a vehicle design with a
very specific performance requirement of the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard is
irrelevant if the Secretary determines years later that the manufacturer should have selected an
equally compliant design used by another manufacturer because it had better performance in one
particular accident mode.” They went on to say that setting such a precedent would undermine
the regulatory process and the relationship between industry and government.
Result
“On December 2, 1994, the Secretary of Transportation announced a settlement of an
investigation by NHTSA of an alleged safety defect in certain GM pickup trucks with fuel tanks
mounted outside the frame rails. Under that settlement, GM contributed over $51.3 million for a
variety of safety initiatives. Among other things, the settlement funded research on ways to
reduce the occurrence and effects of post-crash fires. All relevant results of this research are
being placed in dockets NHTSA-98-3585, NHTSA-98-3588, Docket No. 96-GMRSCH-GR, and
Docket No. 95-20-GR.” (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Fuel Systems Integrity, 1995)

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Technical
Prior to this design, truck fuel tanks had been mounted in a variety of positions including
between the frame rails, and even in the cab (located just behind the seat, a common design for
many manufacturers.) Getting the fuel tank(s) out of the cab was a big step towards safety. The
1973-87 Chevrolet/GMC full-size trucks were equipped with fuel tank(s) mounted under the bed
between the frame rails and the exterior sheet metal. This photo is of a twin-tank version.
The impetus of the outboard fuel tanks is frequently attributed to the marketing division of GM.
This is the same marketing division that invented the towing of aircraft using a truck, long before
Toyota towed a shuttle (Toyota Tundra Pickup Truck Tows the Space Shuttle Endeavour, 2012).
The marketing strategy of the GM truck division really pushed the “Go further, go longer”
concept that implies durability, capability, and conquest; important attributes for the truck
segment. So, it makes sense high-capacity fuel tanks helped reinforce the message.
Marketing department aside, there are a few engineering reasons why the tanks might’ve been
designed this way. Because trucks are sometimes subjected to extreme loads, engineers have to

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pay close attention to the rigidity of the structure. In an effort to increase longitudinal and
transverse rigidity without adding a lot of mass, the frame rails for were not spread very far
apart. The problem with spreading frame rails too far apart is illustrated below.
The engineering department could’ve achieved similar or even increased rigidity by widening the
frame rails and using additional crossmembers, transverse mounted beams that create a look
similar to a ladder. An illustration of such a chassis is below.
(Canyon/Colorado and H3 Frame Comparison, 2009)

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However, it must be remembered that engineering is not about designing perfection; it is a series
of compromises. Some examples:
 The frame rails on the 73-87 trucks are straight and provide the suspension mounting points.
Getting the fuel tanks inside the frame rails would likely have meant creating a frame that
bowed out under the cab and the front part of the bed along with the additional
crossmembers. That would’ve driven production cost up quite a bit.
 This was the age before hydro-formed steel, a major development in auto manufacturing.
 This was the age before CAD became part of the design and production process. CAD
allowed for more complex designs to be made less expensively.
 Government mandates were sapping performance from engines, lowering power and
decreasing efficiency. Adding more weight to the chassis by using more crossmembers and
frame material would’ve hurt performance even more.
A 1978 study at GM concluded that an inboard tank, mounted aft of the cab, is the safest location
for a pickup truck fuel tank. (Garvil, 1978) The results of that study pushed for the next
generation of trucks, and every subsequent generation, to be built that way.
The twin-tank “saddle bag” fuel tanks allowed the user to tote around 40 gallons of fuel, a handy
thing in the days of carbureted big-block consumption coupled with heavy towing demands. It fit
the need of the market segment and met the engineering and government enforcement criteria of
the time. However, due the nature of fuel, it should be assumed that a fuel cell should be the
second most protected asset of the vehicle (priority one being the occupants.) Yes, the design
was good but, like most things, it could’ve been better.

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Endorsements
GM wasn’t the only builder who believed the design was a good one. By using the GM design,
the argument could be made that other qualified people judged the design to be good. This 1974
Pronto fire company support vehicle (below) was built using the Chevrolet chassis and drivetrain
by Hämmerli of Switzerland. Certainly a company that is aware of the danger, causes, and
prevention of fires would’ve chosen a different chassis had there been a perceived problem.
(Hansen, 2011)
This 1974 Suburban Ambulance by Yankee Coach is another example.
(Dorsey, 2012)

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GM trucks also made appearances and strong finishes in motorsports. The Brock Yates-led
Cannonball Baker Sea-to-Shining Sea Memorial Trophy Dash. While most people only know of
the movies with Burt Reynolds, Dom DeLuise, and Dean Martin (along with a host of others,)
the movies were based loosely around a series of illegal cross country road races that took place
in the 1970s. The grueling race required cunning, skill, and reliable and safe vehicles. The
drivers were all experienced racers. Race drivers are acutely aware of their vehicles it is doubtful
that any would pick or build vehicles that were inherently unsafe.
The race teams could’ve picked any brand or type of vehicle. Given that a truck doesn’t look like
a race car, it’s a decent camouflage. There were other brands of trucks available but the racers
almost exclusively picked a Chevrolet.
(Yates, 2002)

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(Yates, 2002)
This 1973 Chevrolet Blazer took top honors in Stock class of the 1987 Baja 1000.

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Media/Legal
These diverse fields are combined because they go together so well. America is sue-happy and,
because juries are used to determine awards in product failure cases, the footing on which
judgements are made is based in large part due to public opinion. This case affords an interesting
look at the interplay between lawyers and media.
Data
Numbers always matter when dealing with a product failure claim. Official production numbers
for all the relevant models weren’t available at the time of this writing but a reasoned estimate is
around 10 million. “From 1973-89, GM pickups were involved in about 155 fatal side-impact
collisions involving fires….the NHSTA estimated that about 5,200 pickups and other light trucks
catch fire every year. Older vehicles are more likely to catch fire than newer ones because of
corrosion and other factors that could lead to fuel line and tank leakage.” (Side Saddle Gas
Tanks, 1997) There were 155 deaths from more than 10,000,000 vehicles; that’s 1.49e-5 of a
percent. There is nothing in the data that says fires caused the deaths, only that a fire occurred.
Legal, Part 1
Truth notwithstanding, some lawyers make all of their money by suing large organizations with
claims of product failure, poor design, negligence, and the like. Some larger law firms spend
their time looking for any kind of reason to sue. Vehicle fires are particularly lucrative because
the awfulness of fire plays well with a jury. In order to get the big money, either through a series
of individual cases or a class action lawsuit, a pattern of a specific problem must be established.
So, lawyers comb through media and obituaries looking for a particular type of death.
Between 1989 and 1992, attorney Jim Butler found four cases of interest in Georgia, Oklahoma,
and Kansas. The “flagship” case was Shannon Moseley, a 17-old who died when a drunk driver
of a pickup truck, driving approximately 68 MPH, T-boned Shannon’s GM pickup on the driver
side. The case was being tried in Atlanta during the Fall and Winter of 1992.
Media, Part 1
“When trial lawyers took their case to the general public through the media, they stressed
intuition rather than statistics. It seems that GM, alone among auto makers, had gone about
hanging gas tanks on the side of its trucks like dartboards, outside the protective frame rail.”
(Olson, The Most Dangerous Vehicle On the Road, 1993)
On November 17, 1992, NBC Dateline aired a video called “Waiting to Explode?” in which a
series of crash tests of GM trucks were performed. Byron Bloch, a self-proclaimed “Auto Safety
Expert” (Bloch) set up the test and was interviewed for the report. He said that “a small hole was
punctured in the tank.” The test vehicle caught fire upon impact. It was a PR nightmare for GM.
After the damning Dateline report, GM hired Failure Analysis Associates to objectively evaluate
their trucks fuel tank safety. Far from just a fly by night organization to help bolster GM’s
credibility, FaAA engineers examined the Oklahoma City bombing and the Branch Davidian

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compound in Waco, TX. When the ExxonValdez grounded, they created a three-dimensional
computer map of it to aid recovery efforts. They determined that a construction flaw caused the
1981 collapse of a walkway at the Hyatt Regency in Kansas City. They also evaluated the
Challenger shuttle explosion. (Granberry, 1992)
Legal, Part 2
It is impossible to know if the jurors saw the popular Dateline show but they weren’t sequestered
so it is possible. Also, after the Dateline story, people spoke of it for months. And then on
“February 5, 1993, the result of the Atlanta jury trial was announced. The court ruled that GM
was to pay $105.2 million to the parents of Shannon Moseley.” (Side Saddle Gas Tanks, 1997)
Lawyers across the country rejoiced. GM appealed.
Media, Part 2
FaAA found that the Dateline story was staged. “Dateline NBC producers had rigged the truck's
fuel tank with remotely controlled model rocket engines to initiate the explosion.” (NBC Caught
Lying About Chevrolet Trucks Exploding, 2014) FaAA found the test trucks in an Indiana
junkyard, X-rayed the fuel tank, and found there was no rupture. Even though they were rigged
to burn, the only damage was some blistered paint. (Irvine, 1993) They examined the film
footage and discovered the fire started six frames before the impact. Further analysis of the film
showed that the car that crashed into the truck at a claimed 30 MPH was doing 39 MPH and
another test in which the speed was claimed to be 40 MPH was 47 MPH.
On February 8, 1993, GM filed a defamation suit against NBC marking the first time GM filed a
defamation suit against any institution or individual.” The announcement of the lawsuit was
delivered by Harry Pearce, GM’s executive vice president and general counsel in a two-hour
press conference in the Product Exhibit Hall of the General Motors Building in Detroit. He
refuted the claims, showed the evidence, and said "The 11 million households that viewed the
program were never told that NBC used remotely controlled incendiary devices to try to ensure
that a fire would erupt, seemingly due to the collision…We cannot allow the men and women of
GM, the thousands of independent businesses that sell GM products, and the owners of these
pickup trucks, to suffer the consequences of NBC’s irresponsible conduct and deliberate
deception." (Pelfrey)
What Pearce failed to mention in his press conference was that Byron Bloch, the “safety expert”
who set up the test, had rigged other crash tests or misrepresented crash tests for other media
groups. In 1978, the Ford Pinto was in trouble and ABC's 20/20 showed videos from testing
performed in 1967 of full-size Fords busting into flames upon impact. Bloch "worked as a
consultant with ABC News on this story, and provided us with many of the Ford crash-test
records." In 1978, as in 1992, Bloch was wearing two hats. “One was as paid or unpaid network
consultant, advisor, and onscreen explainer. The other was as the single best-known expert
witness hired by trial lawyers in high-stakes injury lawsuits against automakers.” (Hamilton)

21
Bloch was/is a well-paid fraud who knows how to manipulate public opinion so that he makes
money from high-stakes lawsuits.
On February 9, Dateline anchors Stone Phillips and Jane Pauley issued an apology pursuant to an
agreement between GM and NBC that GM would drop the case. On February 10, GM dropped
the case but their media troubles were not over.
On February 11, Paula Lyons of ABC’s Good Morning America went on a rant about GM
trucks. "We should keep the spotlight where it belongs. And the problem with the GM trucks is
that the gas tank location is questionable ..... outside the frame rails rather than inside." She
showed footage of a GM “Test to Fail” test where the product is incrementally tested at higher
and higher limits until there’s a failure. The video in question had a vehicle slamming into a
truck at well over 50 MPH, more two and a half times what the NHTSA requires. She did not
disclose those facts during her segment.
Reed Irvine, Editor of Accountability in Media, spoke to her about the segment, her lack of
disclosures, and wrote this “It was clear to me that Lyons is convinced that the GM trucks are
dangerous. While agreeing that relative risk was a factor that had to be taken into account, she
seemed to think that one fatal fire in over a billion miles was an unacceptable risk. Her view was
that GM had made a "marketing" decision to place the gas tanks on the side and that was wrong
if it increased the risk of a death by fire even minutely.” (Irvine, 1993)
Lyons perspective was echoed in May in Newsweek. The Newsweek article featured Clarence
Ditlow, a guy who modeled himself after Ralph Nader by working for Nader and being a lawyer
who is also an “auto safety expert.” He called the trucks "rolling firebombs." (Rich, 1993)
Media interest in GM trucks continues to this day but was dampened after the dispelling of the
Dateline segment. In reference to the non-stop griping, GM spokesperson Ed Lechtzin said "Our
trucks are safe. It's as if we get A-minus but still flunk the test." (Side Saddle Gas Tanks, 1997)
Legal, Part 3
GM, tired of duking it out with Butler, settled the four cases out of court. There was also a class-
action lawsuit against GM but Plaintiffs eventually settled for $1,000 coupons towards new a
new GM product. After the 2009 bankruptcy and bailout of GM, the likelihood of a successful
big money lawsuit is virtually nil due to the asset and liability restructuring that took place.
(Levin, Old Trucks Leave Fiery Legacy, Smoldering Anger, 2010)

22
Conclusion
“It met the spec” is one of the best/worst excuses for a design flaw ever invented. In the case of
the 1973-87 Chevrolet/GMC full-size truck and related platforms, it met the specs it was
supposed to meet, but it did not exemplify a spirit of going “above and beyond.” That the
NHTSA standard was 20 MPH and GM built it to withstand at least 50 MPH was pretty good
though. Sure, it could’ve been better and GM designed a better way for their next models.
GM did an okay job with their public relations approach to the matter. They certainly did a better
job handling this than they did the Corvair situation. However, that generation of design was on
the market for a very long 15 years. In context, all of the domestic automakers were dealing with
a lot of new regulations from the NHTSA and the EPA which sapped a lot of the development
money that could’ve been allocated to designing a newer generation of truck. All the
manufacturers felt the stress; Dodge used the same basic design for their trucks from 1972-94.
The letter to Clinton from the CEOs was an interesting move and a great PR tactic. Had Pena’s
ruling stood, the precedent set would’ve sparked a whirlwind of lawsuits that would’ve clogged
up the courts way more so than they are currently.
In the end, people still drive and enjoy those trucks, Blazers, and Suburbans; GM is still in
business, the NHTSA is frying other fish, and lawyers are still using media to make problems
look like catastrophes. As of this writing, the 12th
of the month, there have already been 12 new
recalls issued by NHTSA.

23
Bibliography
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Administration:
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Bloch, B. (n.d.). Retrieved from Auto Safety Expert: http://www.autosafetyexpert.com/
Boehly, W. A. (1993, April 9). Letter to Manager of Product Investigations at General Motors .
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Borger, J. (2004, October 21). The Guardian profile: Ralph Nader. Retrieved from The
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Chevy pulling a 747. (n.d.). Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1-
gHqov5w8
Coleman, J. W. (1997). The Criminal Elite: Understanding White-Collar Crime. New York: St.
Martin's Press.
Dorsey, K. (2012, October 6). What is the oldest ambulance that you have worked in? Retrieved
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Doyle, J. (2013, March 13). G.M. & Ralph Nader. Retrieved from The Pop History Dig:
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Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Fuel Systems Integrity. (1995). Retrieved from
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Federal Role in Traffic Safety. (1966). Washington, District of Columbia: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Garvil, G. (1978, Spetember 7). Alternative Fuel Tank Locations in Light Trucks. Retrieved from
AutoSafety.org: http://www.autosafety.org/GMAttI.pdf
Geyelin, M. (1999, September 29). How a Memo Written 26 Years Ago Is Costing General
Motors Dearly. Retrieved from The Wall Street Journal:
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GM settles exploding gas tank cases. (1995, September 12). Retrieved from CNN:
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Granberry, M. (1992, March 5). Firm to Investigate Pipeline Rupture : Sewage: Failure Analysis
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in the business.'. Retrieved from LA Times: http://articles.latimes.com/1992-03-
05/local/me-4744_1_failure-analysis-associates
Hamilton, S. (n.d.). Exploding Pinto is a Myth...Pinto Fires, NOT! Retrieved from Ford Pinto:
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Lavin, D. (1993, July 20). GM Settles All Class Actions Over Pickups. Retrieved from Wall
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NHTSA: 1971. (n.d.). Retrieved from Insurance Institute for Highway Safety :
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Olson, W. (1993, June 21). It Didn't Start With Dateline NBC. National Review. Retrieved from
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Olson, W. (1993, February 6). The Most Dangerous Vehicle On the Road. Wall Street Journal.
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Parrish, M., & Nauss, D. W. (1993, February 10). NBC Admits It Rigged Crash, Settles GM Suit.
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pickup
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District of Columbia: National Technical Information Service.
Pelfrey, W. (n.d.). GM vs. NBC, a New Wave of Employee Pride. Retrieved from Gm Heritage
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mployee_Pride
Rich, T. (1993, May 10). Just as Safe at Any Speed: The Feds asked GM to recall its trucks, but
has the pickup-fire flap unfairly tainted the automaker? Newsweek.
Side Saddle Gas Tanks. (1997). Retrieved from Cengage Learning:
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arris/cases/Cases/case49.htm
Toyota Tundra Pickup Truck Tows the Space Shuttle Endeavour. (2012, October 12). Retrieved
from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzfND5fcpB4
Yates, B. (2002). Cannonball! World's Greatest Outlaw Road Race. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI
Publishing Company.

26
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ROI,
STRATEGIES, AND TACTICS
About: I contributed this article to the PRNews’s The Book of CSR and Green PR Strategies and
Tactics, Volume 7; published in 2015.This article spells out the need for, mechanics of, and
return on, investing in internal communication.
The employer-employee relationship is the second oldest relationship in history, bested only by
the relationship with one’s family. The rise of large multi-layered organizations brought about
disconnects in this relationship. Effective CSR practices and campaigns enable even large
organizations to reconnect with employees to improve public perception, retention, and
profitability.
Maubert St. Georges first published a book in 1951 titled “Modern Business: Public Relations.”
It is still being printed with the original text, making it one of the defining PR books of the latter
20th
century. In it he talks about the “bond of reason,” an accepted balancing act that keeps a
single interest, employees, customers, or stockholders, from getting everything it wants.
Employees want compensation, customers want value and choice, and stockholders want profits.
For a long time it was assumed that the only thing employees wanted was more money for a
given number of hours worked. Now we know better. Organizations with CSR as a real value
understand that money is not the only compensation most employees desire.
In 1913, when Ford General Manager James Couzens pushed a reluctant Henry Ford to agree to
the radical $5/day wage, he tripled the company’s wage cost. However, because turnover was so
high prior to the policy change, the actual labor cost went down after the policy went into effect.
Some modern industrial relations scholars suggest that significantly higher profits and
stockholder gains could have been realized had the wage been doubled, not tripled, and Ford had
used a symmetric and CSR-based approach to internal communication.
To design, operate, and evaluate a CSR program, one must apply the appropriate financial
considerations, use proven message parameters, and deliver the messages in a style that engages.
The communication delivery methods require a variety of tactics to build trust, gain useful
feedback, and build a sense of employee community (see sidebar.) By doing all this, an
organization will “walk the walk” rather than just “talk the talk.”
Financial Considerations
Sustainable CSR initiatives are generally agreeable to all members of the bond of reason because
these initiatives add value, real and perceived, to the organization. The employee thinks better of
the workplace and customers receive better products and services due to happier and more
productive employees. Stockholders are often drawn to an organization that is spending money
on external CSR projects because they believe that such discretionary spending indicates
financial health. For this group, the Corporate Accountability Report (CAR) is usually a better

27
predictor of future earnings than external CSR expenditures. Although, some investors only
invest in organizations that effectively demonstrate CSR.
If there’s a resistance to CSR spending, it usually comes from the stockholders. Geoffrey Lantos,
a Stonehill College Professor and editor for The Journal of Consumer Marketing and The Journal
of Product and Brand Management, reminds us that “altruistic CSR violates shareholder property
rights, unjustly seizing stockholder wealth, and it bestows benefits for the general welfare at the
expense of those for whom the firm should care in close relationships.”
Advocates of external CSR often have a difficult time showing a clear ROI to the stockholders
for the efforts. This is due in some part to the long cycle Return On Investment (ROI) from
external CSR initiatives. Imagine if an automaker builds a school then 20 years later the
graduates are buying that manufacturer’s autos. Organizational-spurred social programs and
innovations may solve social problems while benefitting the organization and even the industry
as a whole but is difficult if not impossible to construct a graph that depicts the phenomenon.
By contrast, internal CSR programs have a much shorter ROI cycle and some of the appropriate
metrics may already be in use by the HR team. Thus, it may be most useful to direct the
resources internally. Remember, the most important part of a public relations program is the one
that happens with employees. The attitude of most customers and other interested publics is
frequently a reflection of what employees say and believe about the company.
A frequent result of a poor internal PR program is high turnover. Lowered productivity,
overworked staff, lost knowledge, recruitment costs, and training costs are expenses paid for by
the workforce, customers, and stockholders. Meanwhile, employees who agree with and
participate in CSR-directed initiatives report higher pay satisfaction, higher job satisfaction, and
drastically reduced turnover.
Message Content
Public relations can’t sell bad management policies and PR should never be looked at as a
substitute for appropriate wages, job security, and safe and hospitable working conditions.
Messages to employees must address the core values of security, opportunity, and/or recognition.
View the sidebar for communication tactics and channels that assist the message delivery.
Security: Employees need to feel that they are secure at their job and in their job.
Internally- Employees need to feel that the working environment is as safe as is reasonable.
Keeping things clean and in good repair, dealing with those who may talk themselves into a
harassment suit before it happens, and having a well-known crisis plan in place are a few of the
steps to take to let people know that a safe and amicable work environment is a priority.
Externally- Employees need to feel that the organization is secure. In so many markets in which
the segments are constantly shifting, organizations need to communicate to employees that the

28
brand is safe. Merely saying “All is well” rarely works so backing up the claim with specifics is
important. A message that combines organizational heritage with innovation reminds people that
the brand has been around and assures them that it will be around.
Opportunity: “The Pursuit of Happiness” is stated as a right in the Declaration of Independence.
It is a cornerstone of capitalism and is ingrained in the hearts and minds of Americans.
Internally- Employees need to feel as though there is room for advancement at the organization.
For example, openly communicating “what it takes” to be eligible for advancement at the
organization helps employees chart their course while HR will be offered an in-house pool of
qualified and dedicated applicants.
Externally- Employees feel compelled to support organizations and projects that help others
acquire the skills and resources needed to help them pursue happiness. For example, Habitat for
Humanity is a popular charity because it promotes stabile living, a Maslow Safety Need. By
meeting that need, one is better able to pursue happiness. Educational programs and institutes are
also hugely popular donation recipients because they help people learn and discover the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to pursue happiness.
Recognition: People perform better when they feel their priorities, skills, and contributions are
recognized and valued, inside and outside of the workplace.
Internally- Recognizing people for a preferred set of behaviors indicates that the organization has
values other than money. Rewarded behaviors are likely to be adopted by others thus creating a
more cohesive workforce. Assuming the rewarded values are positive ones, customers,
employees, and shareholders will all benefit.
Externally- Consider a negative event that could impact a community in which some or many
employees live. Recognizing the impact and distress, the organization may grant resources to the
affected employees and/or community. A resource grant may range from unpaid leave, to
coordinating a fundraiser, to committing people and materials for a series of relevant projects.
Message Styles
The delivery style of messages will vary from organization. Some of the dependent variables
include the industry, lowest common denominator of education and intelligence of target
audience, and the goal behind the message (inform, excite, calm, etc.) However, there are a few
strategies that may be applied to all messages:
1. Don’t let your desire to sway external opinion trump the desire to have a favorable opinion
with your employees. Unless you’re in the midst of a crisis situation during which key
external publics have exclusive priority (emergency services, etc.) all efforts must be made to
make sure employees are the first to know. Remember, good external PR starts at home.

29
2. Avoid the plight of corporate jargon. There is no excuse for using unnecessary terms to
replace common words. Successful politicians understand this which is why they use terms
like "doable" rather than "actionable," "strength" rather than "core competency," and
"cooperation" rather than "synergy." The greater the language distance, the greater the
disinterest, distrust, and/or lost opportunities to make connections due to a lack of
understanding.
3. Most employees don’t read the part of the employee handbook that covers the “strategic
vision” and “organizational values.” Many new employees are too busy meeting people and
figuring out the logistics of the job to get around to it, and most never do. Thus, evidence of
vision and values must be in plain sight and part of organizational operations. Some
examples:
o Photos of grateful recipients (Wall of Fame, memorial, etc.)
o Updates in the organizational magazine, website, etc.
o Team meetings should include updates on CSR projects
o All employees should be encouraged to submit ideas for CSR initiatives
4. Use a human touch. Don’t do like Ford did in 2014 and fire people via robocalls. An
organization cannot in good faith broadcast what Jim Vella, President of Ford Motor
Company Fund and Community Services, calls a “legacy of caring” while simultaneously
treating its primary stakeholders so callously. Remember the words of Aristotle; “We are
what we repeatedly do. Excellence then, is not an act, but a habit.” If you want your internal
and external publics to believe that CSR is a key part of your business, you must demonstrate
it consistently.
Final Thoughts
Management icon Peter Drucker wrote “The modern organization…has to be in a community,
has to be a neighbor, and has to do its work within a social setting.” Because of this context, an
organization must evaluate what it does to society but also what it might be able to do for
society. The right mix of profits and good deeds will depend on organizational leadership and
stockholder benevolence. Just remember, usually the best money spent is money spent at home.

30
SIDEBAR
Internal CSR Tactics
Diego Della Valle, President and CEO of Tod’s S.p.A., said “Image is something you construct,
while reputation starts at home.” How an organization treats its members is the cornerstone of
CSR. The foundation for treating organizational members well includes a communication
infrastructure that works for all members.
 Cross-sectional Employee Cooperation and Participation: Teams designed to address non-
divisive organizational goals and issues (ex. safety, cafeteria, charity) and made up of a
cross-section of organizational members fosters communication and reduces disconnect
between members.
 Employee Publications: A monthly newsletter that spotlights various employees and their
activities, professional and personal, builds a sense of community.
 Grievance Mechanism: A mechanism must be in place to address issues in a timely fashion.
 Interviews: Employees are usually only interviewed twice, before the hire and at the exit.
That shouldn’t be case. This may be done individually or in a focus group setting.
 Open Door: While internal communication practices should include this, far too often this
invitation to communicate is underutilized and/or the communication that occurs is filtered.
 Questionnaires: Focused and/or open ended questionnaires, filled out during company time,
are incredibly useful if they are worded correctly. Leading questions and other ethically
challenged tactics do nothing to help the organization succeed.
 Suggestion / Gripe System: The ability to anonymously send a message is hugely important
especially in environments where feelings of disconnect and/or distrust exist. Key is the open
sharing of ideas. Closed door feedback dismissals don’t help achieve organizational goals.
/SIDEBAR

31
Bibliography
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Griswold, G., & Griswold, D. (Eds.). (1948). The Standard Public Relations Handbook. New
York City, New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
Irvine, D., & Mosley, E. (2015). The Power of Thanks: How Social Recognition Empowers
Employees and Creates a Best Place to Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lantos, G. P. (2002). The ethicality of altruistic corporate social responsibility. Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 19(3), 205-232.
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Marr, B. (2013, June 26). What The Heck is Wrong with… Mission and Vision Statements?
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what-the-hell-is-wrong-with-mission-and-vision-statements
Noe, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., & Wright, P. M. (2010). Human Resource
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Pete, J. S. (2014, November 3). Robocall to 100 Ford workers: 'You're fired'. Retrieved from
The Times of Northwest Indiana: http://www.nwitimes.com/business/local/robocall-to-
ford-workers-you-re-fired/article_3b821381-0a50-5631-847d-6647a51f8d6c.html
St. Georges, M. (1951). Public Relations. New York City, New York: Alexander Hamilton
Institute Incorporated.
Vella, J. (2014). A Message from Ford Motor Company Fund and Community Services President
Jim Vella. Retrieved from Corporate Ford:
https://corporate.ford.com/company/community/letter-from-the-president.html

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INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: LEVI STRAUSS RED TAB FOUNDATION
SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAM EVALUATION
Background
This study evaluates the Red Tab Foundation (RTB) / Levi Strauss & Company (LS&CO) -
sponsored scholarship for dependents of low-income employees.
Internal Public Communication
Internal publics require a different approach than external publics; similar to how addressing
your immediate family is different than addressing a prospective customer for your business.
With such a different audience, there is a common belief that metrics don’t exist or “don’t fit”
with an organization’s culture. The larger the organization, the more important metrics become
as they provide feedback, indicators about effectiveness of a given message or program, and
provide a certain degree of accountability. Also, one should never discount the influence that
organizational members have on external publics; revenue, turnover, and new applicants may all
be affected by the positive or negative remarks of opinion leaders.
Appraisal of Stated Objectives
There stated objectives have a few strengths; they’re short and loosely written so “success” isn’t
particularly difficult to achieve. Achievable goals are good. However, writing easy tasks for
communication teams and HR personnel to carry out doesn’t necessarily mean the needs of the
campaign will be satisfied. Especially given the amount of money being spent on the project, the
quality of objectives should be higher.
In order to confirm that good and persuasive communication has taken place, clear objectives
and metrics must be clearly spelled out. Specificity of objectives is critical to reduce the variety
of interpretation by the HR teams responsible for carrying out the program. Communication
requires a receiver, otherwise it’s just noise. (Drucker, 2001, p. 262) To increase communication
and reduce noise, evidence of feedback is appropriate.
Here are some of the weaknesses in the stated objectives:
 “Qualified applicants” and “Lower Pay Grades” are not defined. While LPG may be clearly
defined in other Red Tab Foundation or Levi Strauss & Co. documents, the absence of a
definition here could promote confusion and a lack of consistent program implementation.
 Participation goals by facility are not defined. By not defining cite-specific participation
goals, there may be a significantly disproportionate participation when comparing cites.
 Objectives do not differentiate or adequately explain the desired Outcomes, Outputs, and
Business/ROI. (Anderson, Hadley, Rockland, & Weiner, 2009, p. 12)
 Objectives do not address Equity Theory implications. As a result, those deemed as not
qualified to participate may begin to view their compensation as not being equitable. This

33
may lead to ineligible applicants 1) Reducing personal input by not working as hard, 2)
Increasing personal outcomes via theft, 3) Leaving the organization. (Noe, Hollenbeck,
Gerhart, & Wright, 2010, p. 502)
Revision of Communication Objectives and Metrics
Objectives “should always derive from the goals of the business enterprise.” (Drucker, 2001, p.
115) As such, it is perhaps unwise the separate the objective from the metric from which it will
be measured. Visionary objectives without the inconvenience of metrics work well in political
speeches but not particularly well in cases in which accountability is expected. Public relations
professionals should be able to gauge the performance of specific programs and specific program
elements. (Geddes, 2011)
By using the IPR guidelines which call for stating the Outputs, Outtakes, and Outcomes, one is
able to implement Objectives using recognizable metrics. Because this case study deals with a
program launch, there isn’t the data to showcase the comparative performance of the prior cycle.
Thus, the Outtakes and Outcomes goals may or may not be realistic.
Suggested Goals
Outputs Tangible
 Products
 Activities
Program posters hung in plain sight at workplace: One poster
hung for every 10 eligible applicants
Two events/facility in which eligible employees participate,
the program is announced, and participation is encouraged
Have employees sign an acknowledgement form stating that
they were informed of the program
Outtakes Audience Changes
 Knowledge
 Perceptions
100% All target audience knowledge of program
10% Improved perception of LS&CO by LPG
20% Increased awareness by LPG of Red Tab Foundation
Outcomes Quantifiable
Changes
 Traffic
 Sales/Donations
5% Increased applications to work for LS&CO
15% Increase of visits to organizational webpages by HR
10% Increase of donations to Red Tab Foundation
Auxiliary Metrics
I. Equity Theory
Participation in the RTS program is contingent upon a certain income threshold. Equity Theory
tells us there will often be unintended negative consequences due to the perceptions of an

34
undeserved benefit. All employees value the importance of his/her children’s education.
Consider how an employee may feel about an immediate co-worker’s child getting the higher
education-enabling scholarship while his/her own child is rejected that opportunity. Jealousy,
resent, and inadequacy are all possible feelings. Consider the employee who worked his/her way
up in the company, just barely crossing the eligibility threshold. Emotions often lead to actions.
To quantify the impact of emotions-turned actions, Equity Theory provides metrics including
Productivity, Loss, and Turnover. Since RTF is for LS&CO employees, another metric worth
considering are the foundation contributions. Breaking down the contributions by pay grade is
appropriate due to the exclusivity of the program. One may use these metrics, on an individual
cite basis, to identify problem cites and/or cites with above normal performance. Outliers should
be investigated, problems and best practices identified, and appropriate corrections performed.
OP / IP <, >, or = OP / IP?
P= person o= comparison other
O= perceived outcome (pay, benefits, working conditions, opportunities)
I= perceived inputs (effort, ability, experience)
II. Non-Employee Foundation Contributions
In the current communication plan, nothing is mentioned about external stakeholders and
publics. Although the RTF is indicated as being strictly for LS&CO. employees, there are no
indications of foundation contribution restrictions for non-employees. Public (Outside the
organization) Response should be measured, particularly as it relates to the foundation.
III. Metrics
Productivity Loss Turnover Foundation Contributions
LPG Pre-RTS
LPG Post-RTS
MPG Pre-RTS
MPG Post-RTS
HPG Pre-RTS
HPG Post-RTS
Public Pre-RTS N/A N/A N/A
Public Post-RTS N/A N/A N/A
LPG: Low Pay Grade MPG: Mid-Pay Grade HPG: High Pay Grade
While well meaning, Jill Vanoncini’s communication plan for the Red Tab Scholars program
(Vanoncini) falls short. Without using measureable objectives that push for inclusion while
remaining sensitive to the unique aspects of the internal publics, there is bound to be inconsistent
communication with the target stakeholders. There may even be negative consequences if not

35
Handled properly and, without auxiliary metrics to discover the consequences, the consequences
may escalate.
Bibliography
Anderson, F. W., Hadley, L., Rockland, D., & Weiner, M. (2009). Guidelines For Setting
Measurable Public Relations Objectives: An Update. Gainesville: Institute for Public
Relations.
(2004). Best Practice in the Measurement and Reporting of Public Relations and ROI.
Wokingham: Metrica Research Ltd.
Drucker, P. F. (2001). The Essential Drucker. New York City: Harper Collins.
Geddes, D. (2011, November 1). Framework, Standards, and Metrics: PR Research Priorities
Part 2. Retrieved from Institute for Public Relations:
http://www.instituteforpr.org/framework-standards-and-metrics-pr-research-priorities-
part-2/
Noe, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., & Wright, P. M. (2010). Human Resource
Management: Gaining a Competitive Advantage (7th ed.). New York City: McGraw-
Hill/Irwin.
Track outputs, outtakes and outcomes: Tips for meausring communication success. (2011,
November). Retrieved from Wylie Communication:
http://www.wyliecomm.com/2010/11/track-outputs-outtakes-and-outcomes/
Vanoncini, J. (n.d.). Red Tab Scholars Promotion Plan. Retrieved from Kent State University
Library:
http://reserves.library.kent.edu/eres/download.aspx?docID=34163&shortname=red_tab_s
cholars_promotion_plan.pdf

36
JOURNALISM: EXAMPLES OF AGENDA SETTING
About: I spent nearly a year writing for The Tartan; an independent newspaper serving the
Radford University community of about 12,000. I used Agenda Setting Theory to bring about a
series of discussions by students, faculty, and administration which led to some policy and
campus culture changes that improved overall health, safety, retention, and graduation rates.
While writing for the paper I was also working behind the scenes to encourage various opinion
leaders towards action.
Good Samaritan Policy could save lives
March 22, 2011 Written with Travis Handy thandy@radford.edu
Imagine it’s 3 a.m. and you’re drunk. You’re on your way home from a party and find someone
passed out in an alley. No one else is around, and you’re not 21 yet. What would you do? If you
call 911 you could save this person’s life and wind up with multiple strikes from the university.
While many police officers wouldn’t intervene in such circumstances, many students fear
repercussions. Depending on the circumstances, students could get expelled for potentially
saving the life of someone they didn’t even know. Why? Radford University does not have a
“Good Samaritan Policy.”
Good Samaritan policies encourage students to seek medical attention for someone else suffering
an alcohol or other drug overdose. The policies provide protection from campus sanctions for
violating AOD policies to all of the following people: the individual in distress, a bystander who
seeks medical assistance for an intoxicated student, a campus organization or group that calls for
help for a member or guest.
Many universities including Harvard, UVA and William & Mary have GSPs in place. Thanks to
a federal medical privacy act passed in 1996, neither a would-be samaritan nor the person in
need of treatment would gain strikes if they take the person to the hospital, assuming there is not
an incident (crash, DUI, etc.) on the way. Calling 911 is likely the fastest and safest way for this
person to get medical attention.
The International Journal of Drug Policy is a worldwide organization based at the University of
London. In 2006 it stated “Each episode in which someone does not call for help is a potentially
fatal situation. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce as many barriers to calling for help as possible,
regardless of the prevalence of such behavior.”
That behavior is prevalent at RU, with binge drinking rates more than 20 percent higher than the
national average, according to Alcohol EDU.
A study done by IJDP at Cornell University found that before implementation of the policy, 25
percent of students who considered calling 911 for someone who was severely intoxicated did
not do so. The second most common reason for not calling was concern about getting in trouble.

37
Four years after implementing the policy, students reported being 61 percent more likely to call
for help. According to students, its implementation “demonstrated that the university genuinely
is concerned about the health and safety of its students” and “is a source of good will in the
ongoing and vital dialogue between students and university officials in the search for ways to
reduce alcohol-related harm and, ultimately, save lives.”
According to Lee Carter, coordinator of RU’s Substance Abuse and Violence Education Support
Services, RU has never had a GSP in place. While it has been discussed off and on for several
years, there are no current plans to adopt such a policy.
“I think the university does have a responsibility to the health and safety of students,” Carter
said.
Assistant Dean of Students David Horton said, “Suspension or dismissal may be necessary to
help students grow and move beyond behaviors that endanger themselves and others.” Horton
thinks that a Good Samaritan Policy is worth exploring, but the process would require the
involvement of staff, SGA and other organizations.
Quadfest, RU’s 4-day drinking fest, is one month away. With it will come thousands of visitors
to the city and the strong possibility that people will need medical attention due to excessive
consumption.
Last semester, RU lost one of its own, Sam Mason, to excessive consumption. It is unknown
whether his life might have been saved had there been a GSP in place, but if the IJDP study is
any indication, those around him that night might have been 61% more likely to call for help.
Social Norming Changes Perceptions about Drinking
April 12, 2011
At universities across the country, the number of alcohol-related deaths is on the rise. But at the
University of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia Tech and a number of other
colleges, they’ve managed to reverse the trend.
It’s called “social norming,” and it relies on a combination of social events, peer counseling and
information to challenge the perception students have about drinking. Unlike many programs, it
accepts the reality that underage drinking is inevitable.
Dr. John Brummette, a professor in the school of communication and the head of the Outreach
and Messaging Committee of the Radford University Alcohol Task Force, thinks social norming
is a direction RU should take.
Accompanied by several graduate students at the Task Force meeting held Wednesday, April 6,
Brummette explained the purpose of social norming. ‘Live Well’ is the social norming campaign
he hopes RU will adopt. The group debuted several poster designs.

38
Five drinks in a night is the universally accepted tipping point, as having more than four drinks
in a night tends to negatively impact class attendance, grades and other aspects of academic life.
As such, the posters have a common purpose; slogans such as “Four or Fewer” and “Get a Buzz”
encourage people to only get a buzz from drinking instead of being overly intoxicated. Another
poster, designed especially for RU in April, reads “The Quad in Quadfest stands for four or
fewer.”
Campuses using “Just Say No” campaigns have seen little to no change in student drinking
patterns, despite well-funded programs. The predominant tactic of these approaches is
highlighting risk. Sometimes called “health terrorism,” this tactic hopes to frighten individuals
into positive change by insisting on the negative consequences of certain behaviors.
Social norming runs counter to traditional health and safety educators, “who think we should just
crack down because people are dying,’” said Drew Hunter, executive director of the Bacchus &
Gamma Peer Education Network, a Denver-based coalition of 1,000 colleges and universities
that deals with student health and safety issues.
E. Scott Geller, a psychology professor at Virginia Tech, stated that a social norming campaign
there has been successful at reducing student drinking, particularly among women. Drinking at
fraternity parties showed only a slight decrease, which Geller attributes to the deep-rooted
drinking culture that “overpowers social norms.”
VCU reported the overall number of drinks consumed during a given drinking session declined
by over 30 percent after the introduction of the social norming program within only a few years.
While it was generally well accepted, Dr. Brummette’s presentation and his push for social
norming encountered some resistance. Assistant Dean of Students David Horton said he thought
the posters in present form would send the wrong message and were encouraging students to
drink. Social norming, reiterated Brummette, is a proven way to encourage people away from
unhealthy levels of consumption.
Given the complicated approval process for new campus organizations at RU, the ‘Live Well’
social norming program is still pending review.
SGA gives approval to Good Samaritan Policy
April 19, 2011
While there are and have been alcohol task forces and alcohol steering committees at Radford
University, none have passed a resolution to compel the administration to adopt an alcohol-
related policy. As such, the Student Government Association deemed it appropriate to develop
the framework for one, and it passed this week with an overwhelming majority.
Good Samaritan Policies and the closely related Medical Amnesty Policies work to reduce
student fatalities related to alcohol and drug use. Oftentimes, students will delay or not make a

39
call to emergency services for fear of getting in trouble due to a conduct violation that would be
discovered if the call were made.
A GSP/MAP offers students directly involved with a medical emergency an exemption from
getting a strike and being charged with certain conduct violations.
If a student is caught drinking underage, they could get multiple strikes, or even suspended.
There are times when consumption is happening, or has happened, that a medical emergency
exists.
Students involved in conduct violations during a situation that might warrant a trip to the
emergency room are faced with a dilemma: call for help and get in trouble, sometimes to the
point of suspension, or don’t call for help and hope for the best.
The Medical Amnesty Protocol addresses both the students who make the 911 calls and the
people who get medical attention. It outlines an alternate path for someone in violation of alcohol
and/or drug policies so that strikes aren’t part of the deal.
The introduction to the MAP states: “This protocol does not condone under-age drinking,
excessive drinking, or illegal drug use. Adoption of it encourages more students to make the
appropriate decision to call for help when emergency medical attention is needed. The conduct
process must emphasize education, not academic penalties and to do so requires focus on growth
and development.”
The framework of the proposal was developed in a special committee, which included current
student body President Randi-Lyn Randall, Chief of Staff Jon Mitchell, First Year Council Chair
and SGA President-elect Lee Hicks, CHBS Senator and Vice President-elect Justin Blankenship,
School Spirit Coordinator Daniel Testerman and others.
Joining the students were RU Assistant Dean of Students David Horton, Vice President of
Student Affairs Mark Shanley, Substance Abuse Violence Education Support services Director
Lee Carter, RU Alcohol Task Force member and communications professor Dr. John Brummette
and Sgt. Scott D. Shaffer, a certified crime prevention specialist with the RUPD.
“I applaud my fellow SGA members that recognized that this Medical Amnesty Protocol would
not only encourage students to call for medical assistance when needed, but this protocol would
also save lives,” Hicks said. “I look forward to seeing this protocol become policy before the end
of the summer. It is now in the hands of the administration here at Radford University and I am
anticipating their support of this life-saving measure.”
Shaffer echoed Hicks’ desire for expediency, saying “I’d like to see it in place before Quest.”
Horton and Shanley expressed the feeling that the proposed policy should be circulated through
several different bodies within the university to give more interested parties the chance to weigh

40
in and revise it as they deem appropriate. After the circulation, it would be passed to the
presidential cabinet, including the Board of Visitors, for review, voting and possible
implementation.
“Personally, I joined this organization to make a difference” said Justin Blankenship, a rising
sophomore who shared the sentiment with over 80 percent of the voting body in saying that this
MAP was one way to do so.

41
LEGAL & POLITICAL COMMUNICATION: LIFE AFTER CITIZENS UNITED
Introduction
Unless a celebrity is involved, most people don’t pay much attention to cases decided by the US
court system. So it was a rare thing when opinion leaders from across the political spectrum
anticipated and built fervor around the Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission case.
The anticipation of and reaction to the Supreme Court’s decision was such that tears were shed
by protesters in the streets. Given the public perceptions of the decision, it is critical to assess the
impact with respect to the practice of public relations.
In order to evaluate the impact of the decision there are several considerations to be made:
• What is the purpose of a corporation?
• What is the communication issue?
• What are the public perception arguments?
• What did the decision do?
• What has been the decision impact thus far?
The concept of limiting group-sponsored speech is not a new one. During the early 1950s,
Senator and future President Lyndon Johnson got upset that a charity used contributions to
support the campaign of one of his political opponents. So in 1954, Johnson pushed through an
amendment to Section 501(c)(3) which prohibits tax-exempt organizations from endorsing or
opposing political candidates. “Organizations are absolutely prohibited from directly or
indirectly participating in, or intervening in, any political campaign on behalf of (or in opposition
to) any candidate for elective public office. Contributions to political campaign funds or public
statements of position (verbal or written) made on behalf of the organization in favor of or in
opposition to any candidate for public office clearly violate the prohibition against political
campaign activity.” This “Johnson Amendment” restriction has been upheld as part of the price
tag of the tax-favored status (Ex. Branch Ministries v. Rossotti (D.C. Cir. 2000.)

42
Purposes of a Corporation
Corporations do not have rights because they’re people; they have rights because people have
rights. Corporations are treated as legal people for purposes of:
 Litigation: Imagine trying to individually sue everyone at Exxon, Wal-Mart, or Ford!
 Property transfer: Enables corporations to not need to re-title properties every time a
shareholder buys or sells stock
 Assembly
 Property rights: 4th
Amendment protections, due process
Communication Issue
The Federal Election Commission’s (FEC) regulations define an electioneering communication
as a communication that is “publicly distributed.” 11 CFR §100.29(a)(2) (2009). “In the case of a
candidate for nomination for President . . . publicly distributed means” that the communication
“[c]an be received by 50,000 or more persons in a State where a primary election . . . is being
held within 30 days.” §100.29(b)(3)(ii). Corporations and unions are barred from using their
general treasury funds for express advocacy or electioneering communications. They may
establish, however, a “separate segregated fund.”
Public Perception Arguments
Speech Restrictions on Organizations are Unconstitutional! v. Too Much Money in Politics!
Given the purposes of a corporation, those in favor of the decision believe a corporate entity is
just an extension of its members. “There is no difference” they argue “between the business
funding an event, advertisement, or other type of speech and the members of the organization
taking up a collection from the employees.” Thus, the organizational interests are the interests of
the employees, so organization expressing the collective interests of its members should not be
limited.
Those in opposition to Citizens United believe, like many Americans, that there is already “Too
much money in politics!” “Concerns about political money tend to focus on two aspects of the
process, the costs of running for office and the funds that interest groups allocate for lobbying
members of Congress.” (Is There Too Much Money in Politics Today?, 2005) The vast majority
of people with that belief are not, nor will they ever be, a politician. Nearly as many people do
not work in mass media so they don’t have the first clue about the expense of publicity.

43
The Decision
The Supreme Court was presented four questions (Citizens United, Appellant v. Federal Election
Commission - Questions Presented, 2014) to answer in the Citizens United case.
1) Whether all as-applied challenges to the disclosure requirements (reporting and disclaimers)
imposed on "electioneering communications" by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002
("BCRA") were resolved by McConnell’s statement that it was upholding the disclosure
requirements against facial challenge “for the entire range of electioneering communications' set
forth in the statute." Mem. Op. I, App. 15a (quoting McConnell v. FEC, 540 U.S. 93, 196 (200)).
The Supreme Court overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce1
and portions of
McConnell v. FEC.
2) Whether BCRA's disclosure requirements impose an unconstitutional burden when applied to
electioneering communications protected from prohibition by the appeal-to-vote test, FEC v.
Wisconsin Right to Life, 127 S. Ct. 2652, 2667 (2007) ("WRTL II”), because such
communications are protected "political speech," not regulable “campaign speech,” id. at 2659,
in that they are not "unambiguously related to the campaign of a particular federal candidate,"
Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 80 (1976), or because the disclosure requirements fail strict
scrutiny when so applied.
Do the BCRA's disclosure requirements impose an unconstitutional burden when applied to
electioneering requirements because they are protected "political speech" and not subject to
regulation as "campaign speech"?
No. The majority held that the BCRA's disclosure requirements as applied to The Movie were
constitutional, reasoning that disclosure is justified by a "governmental interest" in providing the
"electorate with information" about election-related spending resources.
3) Whether WRTL II’s appeal-to-vote test requires a clear plea for action to vote for or against a
candidate, so that a communication lacking such a clear plea for action is not subject to the
electioneering communication prohibition. 2 U.S.C. § 441b.
Yes.
4) Whether a broadcast feature-length documentary movie that is sold on DVD, shown in
theaters, and accompanied by a compendium book is to be treated as the broadcast "ads" at issue
1
The Michigan Campaign Finance Act prohibited corporations from using treasury money for independent
expenditures to support or oppose candidates in elections for state offices. However, if a corporation set up an
independent fund designated solely for political purposes, it could make such expenditures. The Michigan Chamber
of Commerce wanted to sponsor a newspaper advertisement in support of a candidate. MCC argued it should have
been excluded from the act's restrictions since it was a "nonprofit ideological corporation." The Court disagreed,
stating the Chamber was akin to a business group given its activities, linkages with community business leaders, and
high degree of members which were business corporations. (Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 1989)

44
in McConnell, 540 U.S. at 126, or whether the movie is not subject to regulation as an
electioneering communication.
Yes.
The Court upheld the disclosure requirements for political advertising sponsors and the ban on
direct contributions to candidates from corporations and unions. It was concluded that political
speech is indispensable to a democracy, which is no less true because the speech comes from a
corporation. Thus, corporate funding of independent political broadcasts in candidate elections
cannot be limited.

45
Decision Impact
Spending on Public Official Campaigns and Lobbying
Perhaps the best metric to evaluate the impact of the decision is the amount of money spent on
the political process. While the decision only impacts the disclosure of sources campaign
contribution sources, it does not impact the reporting of money spent. Thus, if there were people
or organizations who have refrained from getting involved in sponsored political speech, they
were now able to do so using PACs to protect their identities.
To assess the political-financial landscape, it is important to consider the amount of money spent
on campaigns and lobbying. Fortunately there are non-profit organizations that do nothing but
keep a watchful eye on the money involved in politics.
To read this chart:
 “Congressional Races” includes: 1) all expenditures for all of the 435 House of
Representatives races, a two year cycle, 2) all expenditures for all of the 33/34 Senate
races up for a vote that year, a six year cycle
 “Presidential Race” includes all expenditures by every candidate for President during the
four year election cycle.
 Please note these numbers have not been adjusted for inflation.
Congressional Races Congressional Lobbying Presidential Race Total Spent
2012 $3,664,141,430 $3.31 B $2,621,415,792 $6,285,557,223
2011 $3.33 B
2010 $3,631,712,836 $3.55 B N/A $3,631,712,836
2009 $3.50 B
2008 $2,485,952,737 $3.30 B $2,799,728,146 $5,285,680,883
2007 $2.87 B
2006 $2,852,658,140 $2.63 B N/A $2,852,658,140
2005 $2.44 B
2004 $2,237,073,141 $2.20 B $1,910,230,862 $4,147,304,003
2003 $2.06 B
2002 $2,181,682,066 $1.83 B N/A $2,181,682,066
2001 $1.64 B
2000 $1,669,224,553 $1.57 B $1,413,116,384 $3,082,340,937
(The Money Behind the Elections)

46
Adjusting these figures for inflation (Consumer Price Index Database, 2014) offers a clearer look
at political spending with respect to campaigns and lobbying. To better illustrate the campaign
spending trends, the total for a given race was divided by two and used for two years (ex. 2010
amount of $3,631,712,836 was divided by two and each half was put into 2009 and 2010 fields.)
Note the spending decrease that occurred after the Citizens United decision.
Interestingly, when Congressional races, Presidential races, and lobbying expenditures are
combined and compared as percentages of a whole, there is a lot of consistency. Prior to the
Citizens United decision, many speculated a disproportionate increase of campaign expenditures.
That didn’t happen.
$-
$1,000,000,000
$2,000,000,000
$3,000,000,000
$4,000,000,000
$5,000,000,000
$6,000,000,000
$7,000,000,000 2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Congressional Campaign
Lobbying Congress
Presidential
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Total
Congressional Campaign
Lobbying Congress
Presidential

47
Spending on Private Sector Mass Communication
To evaluate political persuasion spending, it is useful to put those numbers in context. Given the
importance of the federal government and the politicians who occupy it, the most logical
comparisons are large American organizations. While not illustrated here, all of these
organizations have yearly mass media spending increases.
Organization TV Magazines Newspapers Internet Other Total
Proctor & Gamble $1.9 B $1.1 B $280 M $234 M $1.5 B $5 B
AT&T $1.4 B $90 M $142 M $245 M $1.4 B $2.91 B
General Motors $1.3 B $185 M $143 M $176 M $1.3 B $2.15 B
Comcast $901 M $97 M $84 M $311 M $1.4 B $3.08 B
Ford $797 M $128 M $13 M $139 M $1.4 B $2.56 B
Verizon $811 M $26 M $72 M $201 M $1.2 B $2.44 B
L’Oreal $662 M $873 M $45 M $23 M $730 M $2.34 B
American Express $124 M $11 M $13 M $129 M $1.9 B $2.19 B
Toyota $959 M $152 M $13 M $112 M $815 M $2.09 B
Fiat Chrysler $900 M $71 M $10 M $110 M $808 M $1.97 B
(100 Leading National Advertisers 2014 edition index, 2014)
Evolution of Speech Restrictions
To gain an understanding of corporate speech restrictions, refer to these cases and legislation:
 Dartmouth College V. Woodward – 1819: Historians believe that the decision greatly
encouraged business investment and growth. Corporations are also chartered by states. If
states can't pass laws to impair those charters, than businesses are more secure. They are also
more apt to attract investors, employ workers, and to add to the national prosperity.
 Tillman Act of 1907
 1st
Amendment expanded by 14th
and affirmed in Gitlow v New York 1925
 US v O’Brien – 1968: Government may restrict speech if the restriction is performed
“incidentally.”
 Government may enact reasonable “content neutral” restrictions on speech
o Strict scrutiny test- must show “compelling” need and be “narrowly tailored”
o Intermediate scrutiny test- law must further an “important’ government interest and
be substantially related to the objective
o Rational basis test- must show the law is “rationally related” to a legitimate
government purpose
 McCain-Feingold: Restrictions on free speech, unless you own a media organization

48
Conclusion
The hypothesis of many was that the decision would spur an increase in corporate spending but
the numbers tell a different story. Not enough time has passed nor information disseminated to
account for the spending decreases across the board but given the amount of FCC and FTC
control over electioneering communication, it is doubtful that hundreds of millions or even
billions are being spent without being reported or noticed.
Even with the spending decrease there are organizations that exist with the sole purpose of
overturning the decision on the basis that the decision caused “too much money” to be part of the
political process. It gives one pause when considering the motives of such an organization.

49
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100 Leading National Advertisers 2014 edition index. (2014, June 23). Retrieved from
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http://www.factcheck.org/2014/08/a-sour-note-from-every-voice/
Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce. (1989). Retrieved from Chicago-Kent College of
Law at Illinois Tech: http://www.oyez.org/cases/1980-1989/1989/1989_88_1569
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002. (2003, December). Retrieved from Cornell University
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Public Relations Industry. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press.

50
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https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/

51
NON-PROFIT COMMUNICATION STRATEGY EVALUATION: BLUE RIDGE
COMMUNITY COLLEGE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION
History
Blue Ridge Community College (BRCC) was founded in 1967 as part of the Virginia
Community College System (VCCS,) a network of 23 public institutions. Due to its geographic
location, BRCC was founded to serve the residents of the central Shenandoah Valley of Virginia.
“Its comprehensive program of instruction includes associate degrees, diplomas, and certificates
in occupational/technical and college/university transfer programs. The College also provides
non-credit workforce training and special interest classes for individuals, business, and industry.”
(About BRCC, 2015) Blue Ridge Community College is accredited by the Southern Association
of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges.
The VCCS was initially intended to be financed by local and state appropriations only. During
the 1970s and early 1980s, there was a widespread recession that negatively affected much of the
developed world. While many states would spend their way through the problem, Virginia
requires the annual budget to balance. The decreased tax revenue due to the recession reduced
the appropriations available for the community college system and put the newly formed college
network in peril. In the late 1970s, Governor Paul S. Trible, Jr. (a former teaching fellow at
Harvard University and current President of Christopher Newport University) disagreed with the
funding limitations imposed by the initial VCCS charter and successfully encouraged members
of the State Legislature and State Senate to repeal the finance limitation.
Over the next few years, the community colleges started foundations to help support the goals
and mission of the respective colleges. New River started their foundation in 1980, Danville in
1982, and so forth. The Blue Ridge Community College Educational Foundation (BRCCEF) was
started in 1985 as a 501(c)(3) organization; thus all gifts are tax deductible as allowed by law.
BRCCEF's fiscal year runs July 1 to June 30 and the federal ID number is 54-1328809. It should
be noted that while BRCC and BRCCEF are separate legal entities and the two have different
organizational seals; that is where the important distinctions end. The BRCCEF is even housed
in a BRCC building.
Mission
“The BRCC Educational Foundation builds community relationships and secures resources to
strengthen the programs and services of Blue Ridge Community College.” (Educational
Foundation, 2015) As an independent legal entity, its sole purpose is to support the goals and
mission of BRCC. “Blue Ridge Community College meets the educational needs of the
community, empowering students through comprehensive programs and services, within an
environment of academic excellence. One of Virginia’s Community Colleges, BRCC offers

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