This document is a biology project by Bhavya Yadav on DNA fingerprinting. It discusses DNA fingerprinting techniques like DNA profiling, extraction, cutting, electrophoresis, and transfer. It explains the stages of DNA fingerprinting like breaking down cells to extract DNA, cutting DNA strands, separating fragments, and analyzing patterns. The principle is that while 99.9% of human DNA is the same, the remaining 0.1% contains non-coding regions that vary between individuals and can be used for identification. DNA fingerprinting has important applications in determining lineage, personal identification, and solving crimes.

1. BIOLOGY PROJECT
Name :- Bhavya Yadav
Class :- XI A
Session:- 2021-2022

2. DNA
Fingerprinting
DNA:-

3. INDEX
.1 Introduction of DNA Fingerprinting
.2 DNA Profiling
.3 Stages Involved
.4 DNA Extraction
.5 DNA Cutting
.6 Electrophoresis
.7 DNA Transfer
.8 Analysis
.9 Principle of DNA Fingerprinting
.10 Importance of DNA Fingerprinting
.11 DNA Profiling Process
.12 Application of DNA Fingerprinting
.13 Conclusion

4. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify, that I Bhavya Yadav of class XI A
has completed the project titled as
‘DNA Fingerprinting’ himself under my guidance.
The progress of the project has been continuously
reported and has been in my knowledge constantly.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my thanks of gratitude to all the
people who have played a critical role in the
research, in this project. Without their active
co-operation, the presentation of this project
could not have been possible within the specific
time.

6. DNA
Fingerprinting

7. DNA fingerprinting is a technique that shows the genetic makeup
of living things. It is a method of finding the difference between
the satellite DNA regions in the genome.”
1980 – American researchers discovered non-coding regions of DNA.
1984 – Professor Alec Jeffreys developed the process of DNA profiling.
1987 – First convicted based on DNA evidence
Introduction Of DNA
Fingerprinting

8. • DNA PROFILING
A process or technique of analysis.
Revealing unique patterns of an individual’s DNA.
Involving non-coding regions.

9. • Stages Involved
 Cells broken down to form DNA.
 DNA strands cut into DNA.
 Fragments separated.
 Pattern of fragments analysed.

10. • DNA Extraction
 Extract DNA From Sample
A sample collected from the tissue of a
living or dead organism is treated with
chemicals and enzymes to extract the DNA,
which is separated and purified.

11. • DNA Cutting
Cut Up DNA
The DNA is cut up into fragments using restriction
enzymes, yielding thousands of fragments of all
different sizes.
Restriction enzymes, found naturally in bacteria,
can be used to cut DNA fragments at specific
sequences, while another enzyme, DNA ligase, can
attach or rejoin DNA fragments with
complementary ends

12. ● Fragments are separated by length.
● DNA which is negatively charged.
● Moves towards the positive terminal.
● Shorter fragments moves faster.
•ELECTROPHORESIS

13. DNA split into single strands
using alkaline solution.
DNA fragments transferred
from gel to filter paper or nylon
membrane.
This is called southern blotting.
Gel, with filter paper attached,
is removed and separated.
DNA Transfer

14. Radioactive probe in solution
blinds to DNA.
X-Ray film.
Revealing a pattern of bands.
ANALYSIS

15. • A picture
is worth a
thousands
words •

16. • Principle Of DNA Fingerprinting
• The DNA of every human being on the planet is 99.9% same. However, about
0.1% or 3 x 106base pairs (out of 3 x 109 bp) of DNA is unique in every
individual.
• Human genome possesses numerous small non-coding but inheritable
sequences of bases which are repeated many times. They do not code for
proteins but make-up 95% of our genetic DNA and therefore called the ―junk
DNA.
• They can be separated as satellite from the bulk DNA during density gradient
centrifugation and hence called satellite DNA.
• In satellite DNA, repetition of bases is in tandem. Depending upon length, base
composition and numbers of tandemly repetitive units, satellite DNAs have
subcategories like microsatellites and mini-satellites.
• Satellite DNAs show polymorphism. The term polymorphism is used when a
variant at a locus is present with a frequency of more than 0.01 population.
• Variations occur due to mutations. These mutations in the non-coding
sequences have piled up with time and form the basis of DNA polymorphism.
• The junk DNA regions are thus made-up of length polymorphisms, which show
variations in the physical length of the DNA molecule.

17. • At specific loci on the chromosome the number of tandem
repeats varies between individuals. There will be a certain
number of repeats for any specific loci on the chromosome.
• Depending on the size of the repeat, the repeat regions are
classified into two groups. Short tandem repeats contain 2-5
base pair repeats and variable number of tandem repeats have
repeats of 9-80 base pairs.
• Since a child receive 50% of the DNA from its father and the
other 50% from his mother, so the number VNTRs at a
particular area of the DNA of the child will be different may be
due to insertion, deletion or mutation in the base pairs.
• As a result, every individual has a distinct composition of VNTRs
and this is the main principle of DNA fingerprinting.
• As single change in nucleotide may make a few more cleavage
site of a given nucleotide or might abolish some existing
cleavage site.
• Thus, if DNA of any individual is digested with a restriction
enzyme, fragments pattern will be produced and will be
different in cleavage site position. This is the basics of DNA
fingerprinting.

18. •Importance of DNA Fingerprinting
1. lineage
DNA fingerprinting can we use to figure
out if two people are related which aids
tremendously in maternity or paternity
tests to show that a person is a mother
or father of a specific child. DNA
fingerprinting can also be used two
trace heritage back for generations this
means that not only you can figure out
who your mother and father are but
also siblings aunts uncles grandparents
and even further back.

19. 2. Personal Identification
DNA fingerprinting has also being thought of as
a future method of identification the way it
would work is that a sample of DNA could be
analyzed on spot and compared to a database
of specific DNA belonging to authorized
personnel. While DNA is the ultimate barcode it
would be two expensive and impractical to use
DNA fingerprinting are available for personal
identification while other means of
identification such as picture ID and Social
Security numbers.

20. • DNA Profiling process
.1 variable number of tandem repeats
(V NTRs).
.2 amplified length polymorphisms (AFLPs).
.3 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)

21. • VNTRs
.1 most of the DNA in a chromosome does not
code for a gene.
.2 these regions contain sequences that repeat
from 2200 times.
.3 there are several known variants of the short
tandem repeats STR in humans.
Example: HUMTH01 has seven different
variations.

22. • AFLPs
AFLP definition: any difference between corresponding DNA
fragments from two organisms A&B is detected by amplified
restriction length polymorphism technique.
Initially, DNA is extracted as for RFLP and then cut with two
different restriction enzymes to produce well defined
restriction fragments with sticky ends.
Synthetic double stranded linkers of approximately 18 to 20 BP
with matching sticky ends are ligated on all the restriction
fragments. Next lane ligated fragments are subsequently
amplified in PCR with 18 to 20 nucleotide length primers
recognizing linkers in each end of the fragments.

23. • RFLP
Steps of making RFLP:
.1 Add a restriction enzyme to cut the DNA into
fragments exact number and size of
fragments produced varies from person to
person.
.2 Fragments are separated by
Electrophoresis.
.3 The smaller fragments travel further than the
large man fragments.
.4 This creates a DNA fingerprint.

24. • Applications Of DNA Fingerprinting
.1 Paternity and Maternity
.2 Criminal Identification and Forensics
.3 Personal Identification
.4 Commercial Varieties of Crops and Livestock

25. 3.bi
The human genome contains
3 billion base pairs of DNA

26. • Conclusions
With a beginning as a mere forensic tool,
the world of DNA fingerprinting has a
gene along way in revealing the genetic
identity of living beings with, massive
evolution in concept and techniques it has
given a lot two various fields cutting across
the spectrum. In plants it has not only
helped in identifying species but also in
defining a new realm in plant genomics,
plant breeding and in conserving the
diversity.
Made by:- Bhavya Yadav
Class:- XI A