Individual Behavior – Personality, Learning, Perception, Attitude & Beliefs

Master of Business Administration
MBA/105
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR and EFFECTIVENESS

Introduction of the Subject:
The study of Organizational behavior has become
crucial as organizations across the world deal with the
far-reaching economic and social consequences.
•Organizational behavior is closely related to all i.e.
Administrative, Managerial and operative level
employees.
•Modern Organizations exist in a complex environment
with an increasing demand for fast and effective
environment changes.
•The manager also has to keep his focus on ethics,
values and social responsibility.

This subject of MBA helps in understanding
problems related to organizational behavior
and its effectiveness.
• It includes the study about management as
a creative problem solving process.
• Organization has some important features
like Culture, Atmosphere which depends
upon the Belief, Value and Attitude of the
employee.
• The Group and group decision making,
change process are the burning problems
now a days

Organizational Behavior is the systematic study of actions and attitudes
within organizations.
• It learns how to behave as an individual in group and in organizations.
• It is the study of dynamic character which acts in various organizations.
• Organizational Behavior is a part of management study.
• Organizational processes like power, politics, Empowerment and conflict
are required to be control for the better performance of the
organization.
• Organizational effectiveness is incomplete and incompatible without
creativity, innovation, so it is required to give enough attention on these
issues, which are the part of this syllabus.

Unit No. Topic No. Topic with detail
course outlines
Text and
References
No. of
Periods
Allotted
Remark
if Any
I 1 General
Introduction
Personality
perception
1
1
1
Total
Periods 6
3 Learning and
Learning behavior,
2
2 Belief, Value
Attitude
1

Unit
No.
Topic No. Topic with detail course
outlines
Text and
References
No. of
Periods
Allotted
Remark
if Any
II 1 Understanding Group,
Group Development
Cycle
1
Total
Periods 6
2 Understanding group
processes
2
3 Factors Influencing
Intergroup Behavior
1
4 Managing Intergroup
Behavior
2

Unit
No.
outlines
Text and
References
No. of
Periods
Allotted
Remark
if Any
III 1 CONCEPT, NEED OF
CHANGE
CHANGE IN
ORGANIZATIONS,
2 Total
Periods 6
2 CHANGE TYPES,
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE,
2
3 MEASURES TO
OVERCOME CHANGE
1
4 CASE STUDY-1 1

Unit
No.
Topic No. Topic with detail
course outlines
Text and
References
No. of Periods
Allotted
Remark
if Any
IV 1 Power and Control
issues in
Organization
2 Total
Periods 6
2 Organizational
Politics
1
3 Empowerment 1
4 Conflict 2

Unit
No.
outlines
Text and
References
No. of
Periods
Allotted
Remark
if Any
V 1 What is Creativity?
What is Innovation?
Creativity and
Innovation in
Organization
3
Total
Periods 6
2 Corporate Governance
Management of Gender
Issues
2
3 Case Study 1

Suggested Readings:
• Kolb. D,etc Organizational Behavior: an Experiential Approach, 5th
Edition EagleCliffs, New Jercy, Prentice Hall, Inc, 1991
• Mainiero L A, Tromley C.L., Developing Managerial skill in OB , New
Delhi, Prentice Hall of India, 1985
• Moore M.D. etc Inside Organizations: Understanding the Human
Dimensions, Landon, Sage 1988
• Aswathappa K, Organizational Behaviour, Himalaya Publishing House,
8th revised edition 2008.
• Kavita Singh, Organizational Behaviour Text and Cases, Pearson, 2009

Lecture - 1
Organization Behavior and
Effectiveness

Unit – I
Individual Behavior and Personality
Points to Cover:
•Personality,
•Learning,
•Perception
•Values, Attitude and Beliefs

Almost everyday we describe and
assess the personalities of the
people around us.

Concept of Personality
• The term personality has been derived from the Latin word
‘per sonare’ which means ‘to speak through’.
• This Latin term denotes masks used by actors in ancient Greece
and Rome.
Thus, the term personality is used in terms of influencing others
through external appearance.
• However, mere external appearance, though important for
personality characteristics, does not constitute the whole
personality.

According to Ruch , personality should include:
• External appearance and behavior or social
stimulus value
• Inner awareness of self as a permanent
organizing force
• The particular pattern or organization of
measurable traits, both inner and outer

Personality :
Personality is made up the characteristic patterns
of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a
person unique.
Personality arises from within the individual and
remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Bonners six factors of classifying the nature of
personality within the context of change and
development:
• Human behavior is composed of acts.
• Personality visualized as a whole actualizes
itself in a particular environment.
• It is distinguished by self-consistency.
• It is formed in a time integrating structure.
• It is goal directed behavior.
• It is a process of becoming.

Characteristics of personality:
Consistency :
There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to
behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar
ways in a variety of situations.
Psychological and physiological :
Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests
that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
Impact behaviors and actions :
Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in
our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
Multiple expressions :
Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be
seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other
social interactions.

Factors determining Personality
1. Heredity:
2. Culture:
3. Family Background:
4. Experiences in Life:
5. Friend Circle or Company:

Factors determining Personality
1. Heredity: Genetic factors influence certain aspects of personality.
For instance, looks, health, habits, behavior, etc are certain characteristics that
can be traced to hereditary in various cases. The development of our
personality is based on how we deal with others' reactions.
2. Culture: The culture and values in our surroundings extensively tend to
shape our personal values and preference.
Thus, people born in different cultures tend to develop different types of
personalities, which consecutively influence their behavior .
For example, Gujarathi’s are more enterprising than individuals from other states,
Punjabis are more industrious and hardworking. Bengalies are more creative and
with an intellectual bend and the likes.
3. Family Background: The socio-economic status , Number of child,
birth order, Education and background, education of the parents influence the
personality of a person to a considerable extent. For example, it is always
presumed that the son of businessman would possess business skills irrespective
of whether he becomes a businessman or professional. Similarly, an individual
belonging to a background of politicians is a good orator.

4. Experiences in Life: Whether one trusts or mistrusts others, is tight
fisted or generous, have a high or low self-esteem, etc is at least
partially related to the past experiences the individual has had and
sometimes shapes the personality of that individual
5. Friend Circle or Company: It is known fact ''A person is known by the
company kept by him". People are influenced by the company they
keep and tend to join members who have common interests, attitudes
and values. From childhood, the people we interact with affect us.
First, our parents and siblings, then our teachers and classmates,
later our friends and social group and etc.
The influence of these various individuals and groups shapes our
personality. Our constant desire to belong to a particular group, will
coerce many of us to change certain aspects of our personality (for
instance, we may have to become less aggressive, more cooperative,
etc.).

Variations in individual characteristics
(Mischel-1968)
• Competencies
• Construct (Conceptual framework)
• Expectations
• Values
• Self Regulatory plan

Environmental influences on personality (James
and Sells - 1981)
• Role characteristics
• Job characteristics
• Leader behavior
• Work group characteristics
• Organizational policies

Theories of Personality:
•Self-Efficacy
•Trait Theory (Five Dimensions of Personality)
•Murray's Theory of Psychogenic Needs
•Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
•Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Concept: Self-Efficacy
The concept of self-efficacy lies at the center of psychologist
Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory.
Bandura’s theory emphasizes the role of
* Observational learning,
* Social experience, and
* Reciprocal determinism in the development of personality.
According to Bandura, a person’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive
skills comprise what is known as the self-system.
This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and
how we behave in response to different situations.
Self-efficacy plays an essential part in this self-system.

What is Self-Efficacy?
According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is
“The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the
courses of action required to manage prospective situations”
Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a
particular situation.
Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people
think, behave, and feel.

Have an Impact on
Self-efficacy
Psychological states
behavior
Motivation

The Role of Self-Efficacy:
All people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they
would like to change, and things they would like to achieve.
However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action
is not quite so simple.
Bandura and others have found that an Individual’s self-efficacy plays
a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.

People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:
* View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered.
* Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate.
* Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities.
* Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments.

People with a weak sense of self-efficacy:
* Avoid challenging tasks.
* Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities.
* Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes.
* Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities

Sources of Self-Efficacy
How does self-efficacy develop?
These beliefs begin to form in early childhood as children
deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and
situations.
However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end during
youth, but continues to evolve throughout life as people
acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding

As per Bandura, -
Four major sources for the Development of self-
efficacy
1. Mastery Experiences:
The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery
experiences.
Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy.
Failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-
efficacy.

2. Social Modeling:
Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another
important source of self-efficacy.
“Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort
raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities
master comparable activities to succeed”

3. Social Persuasion:
People could be persuaded to belief that they have the
skills and capabilities to succeed.
Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people
overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their
best effort to the task at hand.

4. Psychological Responses:
Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play
an important role in self-efficacy.
Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can
all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a
particular situation.
A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in
public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these
situations.
By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing
difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of
self-efficacy.

Determinants of Self-Efficacy
PHYSIOLOGICAL
STATEPhysical Fatigue
PSYCHOLOGICAL
AROUSAL
Vulnerability to Stress, Fear, Anxiety
EMOTIONAL
AROUSAL
PA/NA
S
E
L
F
-
E
F
F
I
C
A
C
Y

Determinants of Self-Efficacy
Entity
Acquirable Skill
Controllable
Uncontrollable
CONCEPTION OF
ABILITY
CONTROLABILITY
OF THE TASK
S
E
L
F
-
E
F
F
I
C
A
C
Y

In psychology, the "Big Five" factors of personality are five
broad domains or dimensions of personality that are used to
describe human personality. The theory based on the Big Five
factors is called the Five Factor Model (FFM).
The Big Five framework of personality traits from Costa &
McCrae, 1992 has emerged as a robust model for
understanding the relationship between personality and
various individual behaviors.
The Big Five factors are:
1. Agreeableness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Neuroticism (EI)
5. Openness

1. Agreeableness
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and
social harmony.
Agreeable individuals value getting along with others.
They are –
friendly,
generous,
helpful, and
willing to compromise their interests with others.
Agreeable people are of optimistic view of human nature.
They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.
Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining
popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people.
On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough
or absolute objective decisions.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above
getting along with others.
They are generally unconcerned with others’ well-being,
and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for
other people.
Sometimes they are considered suspicious, unfriendly,
and uncooperative.
Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists,
critics, or soldiers.

Sample Agreeableness items
I am interested in people.
I feel others’ emotions.
I have a soft heart.
I make people feel at ease.
I sympathize with others’ feelings.
I take time out for others.
Disagreeableness
I am not interested in other people’s problems.
I am not really interested in others.
I feel little concern for others.
I insult people.

2. Conscientiousness :
Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and
direct our impulses.
Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a
snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective
response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously
and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others
as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany.
Conscientiousness includes the factor known as Need for Achievement
The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious
individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through
purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by
others as intelligent and reliable.

Unconscientiousness
On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists
and workaholics.
Extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as
stuffy and boring.
Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability,
lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they
will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never
be called stuffy (i.e. dull, boring, unimaginative).

Sample Conscientiousness items
I am always prepared.
I am exacting in my work.
I follow a schedule.
I get chores done right away.
I like order.
I pay attention to details.
Unconscientiousness
I leave my belongings around.
I make a mess of things.
I often forget to put things back in their proper place.
I shirk my duties.

3. Extraversion:
Extraversion also called "extroversion
Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often
experience positive emotions.
They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are
likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement.
In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention
to themselves.
A simple explanation is that an extrovert gains energy by
associating with others and loses energy when alone for any
period of time.

Introverts
Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of
extraverts.
They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent
on the social world.
Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as
shyness or depression;
The introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert and
more time alone to re-charge their batteries.
An introvert is the opposite, as they gain energy from doing
individual activities such as watching movies or reading and lose
energy, sometimes to the point of exhaustion, from social
activities.

Sample Extraversion items
I am the life of the party.
I don't mind being the center of
attention.
I feel comfortable around people.
I start conversations.
I talk to a lot of different people at
parties.

Introvert:
I am quiet around strangers.
I don't like to draw attention to myself.
I don't talk a lot.
I have little to say.

4. Neuroticism: (Reactive to emotions)
Neuroticism, also known inversely as Emotional Stability, refers to
the tendency to experience negative emotions.
Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily
one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression,
but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People high
in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally
to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions
tend to be more intense than normal.
They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening,
and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative
emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of
time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems
in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think
clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

Low Neuroticism:
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism
are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive.
They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent
negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that
low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings;
Frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion
domain.

Sample Neuroticism items
I am easily disturbed.
I change my mood a lot.
I get irritated easily.
I get stressed out easily.
I get upset easily.
I have frequent mood swings.
I often feel blue.
I worry about things.

Low Neuroticism :
I am relaxed most of
the time.
I seldom feel blue.

5. Openness to Experience:
Openness to Experience describes a dimension of personality that
distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth,
conventional people.
Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and
sensitive to beauty.
They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their
feelings. They therefore tend to hold unconventional and
individualistic beliefs, although their actions may be conforming

Low openness:
People with low scores on openness to experience tend to
have narrow, common interests.
They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the
complex, ambiguous, and subtle.
They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion,
regarding these endeavors as abstruse (puzzling) or of no
practical use.

Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty;
they are conservative and resistant to change.

Sample Openness items
I am full of ideas.
I am quick to understand things.
I have a rich vocabulary.
I have a vivid imagination.
I have excellent ideas.
I spend time reflecting on things.
I use difficult words.

Not open:
I am not interested in abstract ideas.
I do not have a good imagination.
I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.

What are the Important traits for the
following personalities:
1. Scientist:
2. Professor (Academician):
3. Manager: CEO:

• Scientist:
Conscientiousness,
openness,
Introvert,
low neuroticism

• Professor (Academician):
Agreeableness(50%),
Conscientiousness(+),
Extrovert(50%),
Neuroticism(50%),
Openness(+)

• Manager: CEO:
Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness,
Extrovert(50%),
Low Neuroticism,
Openness

Lecture - 7
Points to Cover:
•Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
•Murray's Theory of Psychogenic Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content
theory" of motivation”
Maslow's theory consisted of two parts:
(1) The classification of human needs, and
(2) Consideration of how the classes are
related to each other

How does the Hierarchy Work?
- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy (pyramid) i.e.
physiological needs and will initially seek to satisfy basic needs (e.g.
food, shelter)
Once these physiological needs have been satisfied, they are no
longer a motivator. The individual moves up to the next level.
- Safety needs at work could include physical safety (e.g. protective
clothing) as well as protection against unemployment, loss of
income through sickness etc). When this need is satisfied the
individual moves up to the next level.
-Social needs recognize that most people want to belong to a group.
These would include the need for love and belonging (e.g. working
with colleague who support you at work, teamwork,
communication)

How does the Hierarchy Work?
-Esteem needs are about being given recognition for a job well done.
They reflect the fact that many people seek the esteem and respect
of others. A promotion at work might achieve this.
- Self-actualization is about how people think about themselves - this
is often measured by the extent of success and/or challenge at work.
Maslow's model has great potential appeal in the business world.
The message is clear - if management can find out which level each
employee has reached, then they can decide on suitable rewards.

Problems with the Maslow Model
There are several problems with the Maslow model when real-
life working practice is considered:
-Individual behavior seems to respond to several needs - not
just one
-The same need (e.g. the need to interact socially at work) may
cause quite different behavior in different individuals
- There is a problem in deciding when a level has actually been
"satisfied"
- The model ignores the often-observed behavior of individuals
who tolerate low-pay for the promise of future benefits
- There is little empirical evidence to support the model. Some
critics suggest that Maslow's model is only really relevant to
understanding the behavior of middle-class workers.

Henry Murray
•Murray developed psychogenic needs concept
•He was focused on basic needs in personality which
he called psychogenic needs. He believed these needs
were largely at the unconscious level. He narrowed
these needs down to 27

Murray’s Psychogenic Needs
•Description of Need
• Abasement (Loss of Self Respect)To surrender and accept
punishment
• Achievement To overcome obstacles and succeed
• Acquisition (Conservancy) To obtain possessions
• Affiliation To make associations and friendships
• Aggression To injure others
• Autonomy To resist others and stand strong
• Blame avoidance To avoid blame and obey the rules
• Construction To build or create

• Contrarians To be unique
• Counteraction To defend honor
• Defendance To justify actions
• Deference To follow a superior, to serve
• Dominance (Power) To control and lead others
• Exhibition To attract attention
• Exposition To provide information, educate
• Harm avoidance To avoid pain
• Infavoidance To avoid failure, shame, or to conceal a
weakness
• Nurturance To protect the helpless
• Order To arrange, organize, and be precise

• Play To relieve tension, have fun, or relax
• Recognition To gain approval and social status
• Rejection To exclude another
• Sentience To enjoy sensuous impressions
• Sex (Erotic) To form and enjoy an erotic relationship
• Similance To empathize
• Succorance To seek protection or sympathy
• Understanding (Cognizance) To analyze and experience, to
seek knowledge

• Murray contended that environmental forces played a
significant role in the exhibition of the psychogenic needs. He
called the forces "press," referring to the pressure they put on
us that forces us to act. He further argued for a difference
between the real environmental forces, alpha press, and those
that are merely perceived, beta press.
• Three important needs are : The need for Power, Affiliation,
and Achievement.

Achievement (nAch):
Those with a high need for achievement (nAch)
demonstrate a consistent concern about meeting
obligations and accomplishing tasks. They are,
however, more focused on internal motivation rather
than external rewards.
For example, those high in nAch are more likely to
value intelligence and personal achievement over
recognition and praise.

WHAT IS LEARNING?
• A relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that occurs due to
practice or experience.
• In the words of Harvard Business School psychologist Chris Argyris, learning is
"detection and correction of error" where an error means "any mismatch
between our intentions and what actually happens.“

Learning is acquiring new, or modifying
existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and
may involve synthesizing different types of information.
The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and
some machines.
According to Ormrod's J.E.
Human Learning can be defined in two perspectives:
• Behaviorist:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience. This refers to a change in behavior, an external change
that we can observe.
• Cognitive:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental associations
due to experience. This definition focuses on a change in mental
associations, an internal change that we cannot observe.

WHAT DO EMPLOYEES LEARN?
• PRACTICAL SKILLS
• INTRAPERSONAL SKILLS
• INTERPERSONAL LEARNING
• CULTURAL AWARENESS

1. PRACTICAL SKILLS
• Job-specific skills
• Knowledge
• Technical competence

2. INTRAPERSONAL SKILLS
• Problem solving
• Critical thinking
• Learning about alternative work processes
• Risk taking

3. INTERPERSONAL LEARNING
•Interactive skills
• Communicating
• Teamwork
• Conflict resolution

4. CULTURAL AWARENESS
• Social norms of organizations
• Understanding company goals
• Business operations
• Company expectations and priorities

Theories of Learning
1. REINFORCEMENT THEORIES
The process by which stimuli strengthen behaviours.
• A reinforcer is a stimulus that follows some behaviour and increases
or maintains the probability of that behaviour.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• The application or addition of a stimulus
that increases or maintains the probability
of some behaviour.
• Positive reinforcers tend to be pleasant.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• The removal of a stimulus that, in turn, increases or maintains the
probability of some behaviour.
• Negative reinforcers tend to be unpleasant.

PUNISHMENT
The application of an aversive stimulus following some behaviour
designed to decrease the probability of that behaviour.

USING PUNISHMENT EFFECTIVELY
• Provide an acceptable alternative for the punished response.
• Make sure the chosen punishment is truly aversive.
• Punish immediately.
• Do not reward unwanted behaviours before or after punishment.
• Do not inadvertently punish desirable behaviour.

REINFORCEMENT STRATEGIES
• To obtain fast acquisition of some response, continuous and immediate
reinforcement is used.
• Behaviour tends to be persistent when learned under conditions of partial
and delayed reinforcement.

REINFORCEMENT STRATEGIES
AND THEIR EFFECTS

Theory of Classical Conditioning:
(Un-Conditional and Conditional Learning)
In classical conditioning you learn when two or more events are
paired in time.
For example, every time you hear a bell you get kicked in the leg
and then scream. Two or three kicks later you learn to associate
the bell with the kick and then start screaming at the sound of
the bell. In that scenario, the kick is called the unconditioned
stimulus, or the thing that will automatically produce a
response(your scream). The scream is called the unconditional
response because it is the unlearned reaction to the
unconditioned stimulus.

So what does that make the bell?
Well, the bell is the neutral thing that when paired
with the unconditioned stimulus (kick) acquires the
ability to elicit a conditioned response. And the
conditioned response is simply a term for the event
where the learned response to the conditioned
stimulus (bell) resembles the unconditioned response.
So your response to the bell is similar to your response
to the kick.

Pavlov experiment of learning-- Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov was studying digestive processes in a certain dog when he
realized that the dog would begin salivating to food-related stimuli after
working with Pavlov repeatedly. The food dish, the usual person who fed
the dog, and even footsteps in the hall all made the dog salivate.
To determine what triggered the dog to salivate, Pavlov and his
associates set up an experiment. A surgically implanted tube in dogs
mouth was attached to the salivary gland. This tube ran into a test tube
that recorded exactly how much saliva the dog was producing. By pairing
neutral stimuli to the food in the dog’s mouth, they hoped to be able to
condition the dog to salivate to the neutral stimuli when it was
presented alone
Pavlov’s experiment eventually led to his sounding a tone just before
placing the food in front of the dog.
After several pairings of the tone and the food, the dog began salivating
to the tone alone.
This effectively proved that one can condition a response and led to a
new term for a recently researched type of learning--classical
conditioning.

Lecture – 5
Factors Helping Learning
Process

1. MODELING
2. SELF-EFFICACY
3. SELF-MANAGEMENT
4. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
5. TRAINING
Factors helping (Techniques used) in learning
process:

MODELING
• The process of imitating the behaviour of others.
• It is self-reinforcement that occurs in the modeling process.
• Attractive, credible, competent, high-status people will be imitated.

SELF-EFFICACY
• Beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a
specific task.
• It is the Key factor in training.

SELF-MANAGEMENT
• The use of learning principles to manage one’s own behavior.
• Techniques include:
• Collect self-observation data,
• Observe models,
• Set goals,
• Rehearse, and
• Reinforce oneself.

Influence of Learning on ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
• The systematic use of learning principles to influence organizational
behaviour.
• Financial and non-financial interventions have positive effects:
• Reinforcing attendance.
• Reinforcing work place safety.

Formal Learning:
TRAINING
• Planned organizational activities that
are designed to facilitate knowledge
and skill acquisition and the learning
of important job-related behaviours.

INFORMAL LEARNING
• Learning experiences that are not planned and designed by the
organization.
• Tend to be spontaneous, immediate and task specific.

CONTINUOUS – LEARNING
WORK ENVIRONMENT
• A work environment in which learning is considered to be an important
part of everyday work life.
• It is a major factor contributing to supervisors’ learning and behaviour.

Learning Curve:
Learning Curve is the diagrammatic representation of the
amount learned in relation to time. A typical Learning
Curve will show on the Y-axis the amount learned and on
the X-axis the passage of time.
Figure on next slide represents a generalized learning
curve, which shows the extents to which the rate of
learning increases or decreases with practice.

Generalized Learning Curve
A typical learning curve will show on the Y-axis the amount
learnt and on X-axis the passage of time.

LEARNING CURVE
A learning curve is divided in following stages-
Initial spurt
Plateaux (Area of stability)
learning (Organizational learning, Disorganizational Learning)
Fatigue
End Spurt

Initial Spurt
There are certain characteristics of learning curve. For
Example at the beginning the rate of learning frequently
shows a spurt. Usually, the graph levels off at some stage,
indicating that maximum performance has been achieved.
Apparently, at the beginning of the learning process, the
subject is very highly motivated and seems to exhibit a
significant surge of efforts.
Many experienced trainers exploit this initial spurt by
selecting the most important items to be communicated and
presenting them as a package to the students at the
beginning of the training unit. In many ways it is possible to
exemplify the initial spurt with the aphorism “The first step is
the best step”.

Learning Plateau:
A common characteristics of the learning curve is the learning plateau.
At some point in the learning process there is usually a flattening off in
terms of improvement, a plateau. Frequently, the process of learning is
marked by discontinues and involved escalating from one plateau to
another. Most learners are too aware of the experience of finding
themselves on a plateau, which manifest itself in the feeling that they
are never going to anywhere.
Jumping from one plateau to another is called organization of learning.
Organization of learning is achieved when the learner discovers a new
and more effective method of performing particular task. For Example in
learning to drive, the escalation is achieved when the trainee discovers
it is possible to locate the gearshift lever by kinesthetic feedback, rather
than by visually searching for the stick. Much the same escalation takes
place with more academic subjects; for example, in mathematics, the
student learns to apply calculus in dealing with the problems of
business.

End spurt:
Another aspect of the generalized learning curve is the
factor of fatigue. In the end spurt, when the learner
knows the training session is coming to an end there
appears to be a brief resurgence of interest and effort.
After dinner speakers may exploit this by prefacing the
last quarter of an address with the remark “finally”
followed by “to sum up”, then, “lastly” followed by “my
penultimate point is ….,” and then “before I sit down…..”

According to Stephen P Robbins, Perception is a process by
which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
The term originated from a Latin word ‘percepio’ meaning
receiving, collecting, action of taking possession,
apprehension with the mind or senses.
PERCEPTION

Fred Luthans has defined Perception as –
A complicated interactions of selection, organization and
interpretation of stimuli.
According to Luthans, the perceptual process comprises of -
- External environment
- Confrontation
- Registration
- Interpretation
- Feedback
- Behavior
- Consequence

What do you see?
• A Bat .Two trees
• A Butterfly .Something else
• A Bird

What you see?
A Moustache Something else :
Swans
Eyes

You can see a white vase as figure against a black background, or two
black faces in profile on a white background

Perceptual Process
Object in the
Environment
Response Interpretation
Observation Selection
Organization

Perceptual selection is the process by which people filter out
irrelevant or less significant information so that they can deal
with the most important matters.
Perceptual Selection is determined by-
1. External Factors
2. Internal Factors
Perceptual Selectivity

External Factors affecting perceptual
selection
1. Size: The larger the size, the more likely it is to be
perceived.
The tallest person in the office will invariably be noticed.
2. Intensity: The more intense an external factor (bright
light, loud noise, high pitch sound etc.) the more likely it is
to be perceived.
One may notice that the TV commercials always have high
pitch as compared to normal telecast.
3. Contrast: External factors that stand out against the
background or things that are not which people expect
are more likely to be perceived.

4. Motion: A moving factor is more likely to be perceived
than stationary factor. Films (motion pictures) attract
people more than a static picture.
5. Repetition: A repeated factor is more likely to be
noticed.
Marketing managers use this principle in trying to get
attention of the prospective customers.
6. Novelty and familiarity: Either novelty or familiarity
which can attract attention. People would quickly notice a
person riding an elephant on a busy street.

On the other hand, one is likely to spot a familiar face in a crowd or a
familiar voice even if there is a lot of noise and confusion.
A combination of these or similar factor may be operating at any time
to affect perception. Along with the internal factors, they determine
whether any particular stimulus is more or less likely to be noticed.

1. Personality: Personality has an interesting influence on what and
how people perceive. For example, conscientious people tend to pay
more attention to external environmental cues (indication) than does a
less conscientious person. Less conscientious persons are impulsive,
careless, and irresponsible. They see their environment as hectic and
unstable which affects the way they make perceptual selections. On the
other hand, more conscientious people organize their perceptions into
neat categories, allowing themselves to retrieve data quickly and in an
organized manner. In other words, they are careful, methodical, and
disciplined in making perceptual selections.
Internal factors affecting perceptual selection

Learning determines the development of perceptual sets. A
perceptual set is an expectation of a particular interpretation
based on past experiences with the same or an identical object.
In organizational settings, past experiences of the managers
and employees influence their perceptions to a great extent.
2. Learning:

A person’s most urgent needs and desires at any particular time can
influence perception. People perceive things that promise to help
satisfy their needs and that they have found rewarding in the past.
Also, people process pleasant event more efficiently and accurately
than they do unpleasant events. For example, an employee who
receives both positive and negative feedback during the appraisal
meeting may more easily and clearly remember the positive
statements than the negative ones.
3. Motivation

Lecture - 7
BRUNER’S MODEL OF
THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
•When a perceiver encounters an unfamiliar target, the
perceiver is very open to the informational cue (Indication)
contained in the target and the situation surrounding it.
•Information is needed on which to base perceptions of the
target and to resolve any ambiguity.

BRUNER’S MODEL OF
THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
1. SELECTIVITY
Not all available cues are used and those that are used are
thus given emphasis.
2. CONSTANCY
The tendency for the target to be perceived in the same way
over time or across situations.
3. CONSISTENCY
The tendency to select, ignore and distort cues to fit together
to form a homogeneous image of the target.

Elements of Perception
Sensation
The absolute threshold
The differential threshold
Subliminal perception

Sensory Receptors: The human organs (eyes, ears,
nose, mouth, skin) that receive sensory inputs.
Absolute Threshold : The lowest level at which an
individual can experience a sensation.
Differential Threshold : The minimal difference that can
be detected between two stimuli. Also known as the j.n.d.
(just noticeable difference).
Subliminal Perception: Perception of very weak or rapid
stimuli received below the level of conscious awareness.

Price/Quality Relationship
The perception of price as
an indicator of product
quality (e.g., the higher
the price, the higher the
perceived quality of the
product).

Some Marketing Variables Influencing Consumer
Perception
Nature of Product
Physical Attributes of Product
Package Design
Brand Name
Advertisements & Commercials
Position of Ad
Editorial Environment

Distorting Influences
Physical Appearances
Stereotypes
Irrelevant Cues
First Impressions
Jumping to Conclusions
Halo Effect

1. Figure-ground: Perceived objects stand out as separable
from their general background. In the context of
organizations, a company may import a new technology in
order to compete in the globalized economy.
Here import of a new technology is a figure and
Global competitive environment is the background. The
employees will immediately notice the installation of new
technology whereas the global competitive environment is
not visible by naked eyes.
Important Elements (Biases) in Perception

2. Perceptual grouping: There is a general tendency
among individuals to group several stimuli together into a
recognizable pattern.
There are certain underlying uniformities in grouping.
When simple collection of stimuli are presented to people,
they tend to group them together by closure, continuity,
proximity, and similarity.

3. Perceptual Constancy:
There are two issues. While objective reality of stimuli remains unchanged,
people’s subjective reality also remains constant. That is, the individual is
likely to give meaning to stimuli in the same way whenever exposed to them
unless and until objective reality has been revealed more broadly by way of
undoing the perceptual errors.
For example, a manager in the company who believes that female employees
are poor performers would continue to have the same perception until and
unless the latter prove that they are better than their male colleagues.

4. Perceptual Context:
It gives meaning and value to simple stimuli in the environment.
The organizational culture and structure provide the primary context
in which workers and managers perceive things. Thus, a verbal order,
an e-mail message, a new policy, a suggestion, a raised eyebrow, a
pat on the back takes on special meaning and value when placed in
the context of work organization.

5. Perceptual Errors:
a). Accuracy of judgment:
i) Similarity error: People are predisposed towards those having similar
traits, socio-economic-cultural background.
ii) Contrast error: People tend to compare among the available resources
and thus arrive at a conclusion that might be far from the objective
reality.
iii) Race/gender/age bias: People’s perception may be tempered by their
prejudices vis-à-vis race, gender, and age.
iv)First impression error: People may hold a long-term view about a
person or thing based on first impression.

b) Perceptual defense: People tend to defend the way they perceive
things. Once established, a person’s way of viewing the world may
become highly resistant to change.
Sometimes, perceptual defense may have negative consequences. This
perceptual error can result in manager’s inability to perceive the need to
be creative in solving problems. As a result, the individual simply
proceeds as in the past even in the face of evidence that business as usual
is not accomplishing anything worthwhile.

c) Stereotyping: It is the belief that all members of a specific groups
share similar traits and behavior. Most often, a person is put into a
stereotype because the perceiver knows only the overall category to
which the person belongs. However, because each individual is unique,
the real traits of the person are generally quite different from those that
stereotype would suggest.

d) Halo effect: Under halo effect, a person is perceived on the basis of
a single trait. It generally occurs during performance appraisal where
the supervisor rates an employee on the basis of only one trait e.g.
intelligence, punctuality, cooperativeness appearance etc.

e) Projection: It is the tendency of seeing one’s own traits in others.
Thus, individuals project their own feelings, personality characteristics
attitudes, or motives onto others. Projection may be especially strong for
undesirable traits that the perceivers possess but fail to recognize in
themselves. People whose personality traits include stinginess, obstinacy,
and disorderliness tend to rate others higher on these traits than do
people who do not have these traits.

Influence on Perception of -
LENIENCY, HARSHNESS, AND CENTRAL TENDENCY

VALUE, ATTITUDES, BELIEF
AND
BEHAVIOUR
Lecture - 8

VALUES
• A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others.
Rokeach (1973) defined values as “core conceptions of the desirable within
every individual or society.” He stated that values “serve as standards or
criteria to guide not only action but also judgment, choice, attitude,
evaluation, argument, exhortation, rationalization and one might add
attribution of causality.”
Examples of values:
commonly held as basic are freedom, security, social belonging, dignity,
beauty, or truth.
Values define for us what is true, right, and beautiful (Hansis 1996).

Values
• LOYALTY
• DUTY
• RESPECT
• SELFLESS SERVICE
• HONOR
• INTEGRITY
• PERSONAL COURAGE

Categories of Values
• Personal Values
• Representative of an individual's moral character
• Social Values
• Folkways- values people accept out of habit
• Morals- morality which governs values
• Institutional- ways or practices set up under law
• Taboos(banned) the emphatic do’s and don’ts of a particular society

Categories of Values
• Political
• Public service, voting, civic responsibility
• Economic
• Such mediums as equal employment, stable economy, money, private
property, pride of ownership, and taxes
• Religious
• Characterized by reverence for life, human dignity and freedom of worship
• Socialization
• Major source of individual values

Louis Rath’s Value Criteria
• Choosing Freely
• No one can force you into a value
• Choosing from alternatives
• Choosing after consideration of the consequences
• Choosing after the thoughtful consideration
• Being committed to the choice
• Prizing and cherishing
• Being happy with your choice

• Affirming
• Letting others know where you stand
• Acted upon
• Your actions speak louder than words
• Repeated
• Consistent in your pattern of life

Activity#1: What are some of my values?
• Manners—are they old fashioned? Do they hold a high or low value in
your life?
• Pride—are there things you need to be proud of? Do you value pride or
do you value humility?
• Clothes—how important are clothes at work? At play?
• Behaviour on the sports field—what behaviours do you value?
Sportsmanship? Winning? Team spirit? Individuality?
• Family life? What do you value about family life?

Write down some of the values you hold in these areas. Talk to
friends and family members. Ask them these same questions. Do
the answers differ?

What is a belief?
The perception of a relationship between two objects or something
and a characteristic of it.
• Bananas are yellow
• Physical activity is boring
• Lawyers are dishonest

Beliefs/Norms
• Beliefs are assumptions or convictions you hold as true about some
thing, concept or person.
• Norms are the rules or laws normally based on agreed-upon beliefs
and values that members of a group follow to live in harmony.
• Formal- official standards or laws that govern behavior.
• Informal- unwritten rules or standards that govern the behavior

The relationship of beliefs to attitudes
• Beliefs are translated into attitudes through values
• BELIEF: Lawyers overcharge their clients
• VALUE: Fairness
• ATTITUDE: I don’t like lawyers

ATTITUDES
• A fairly stable emotional tendency to respond
consistently to some specific object, situation, person or
category of people.
ATTITUDE BEHAVIOUR

ATTITUDE FORMATION
BELIEF + VALUE ATTITUDE BEHAVIOUR

Characteristics of Attitude
• Difficult to measure
• Indicated by behavior, reactions to individual situations, social values
• May create inflexibility and stereotypes
• Based on inconsistencies, incorrect assumptions or other false data
• Demonstrated by behavior

Characteristics of Attitude
• Formed largely from the continuous process of socialization
• Positive or negative
• Once formed not easily changed
• Takes a SEE, new conditions, new experience, and new information
• Attitudes may be affected by age, position, and education

Organizational need of ATTITUDES
• Attitudes toward workforce diversity
• Attitudes toward ethical business practices
• Attitudes toward anticipated changes
• Attitudes toward safety practices and the use of safety equipment

CHANGING ATITUDES
CHANGED
BELIEFS
AND/OR
VALUES
CHANGED
ATTITUDES
CHANGED
BEHAVIOUR

Lecture 9
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
• A feeling of tension experienced when certain cognitions
are contradictory or inconsistent with each other.

Cognitive Dissonance
• A state of internal tension that results from an inconsistency between
any knowledge , belief, opinion, attitude or feeling about the
environment, oneself of one’s behavior.
• It is psychological uncomfortablity.
• Cognitive- being reduced to factual knowledge; act or process of knowing
including both awareness and judgment.
• Dissonance- lack of agreement, inconsistency between one’s actions and
one’s belief

Cognitive structure
Beliefs: Lawyers
overcharge
their clients
Values: Fairness
Attitude: I don’t like lawyers

Cognitive structure
Beliefs: Lawyers
overcharge
their clients
Lawyers
help their
clients lie
Values: Fairness Honesty

Cognitive structure
Beliefs: Lawyers
overcharge
their clients
Lawyers
help their
clients lie
Lawyers
help rich
people
Values: Fairness Honesty Equality

Cognitive structure
Beliefs: Lawyers
overcharge
their clients
Lawyers
help their
clients lie
Lawyers
help
everybody
Values: Fairness Honesty Equality

Ways to Reduce
“Cognitive Dissonance”
Avoidance
Denial
Change

Example of the Process
• MR. XYZ is unhappy that women are now assigned to his unit
because he feels that females cannot handle stressful emergency
situations. Then during a situation one female functions well during
an emergency.
• MR. XYZ experiences cognitive dissonance.
• How does MR. XYZ reduce this?

Behavior
The manner of conducting oneself. The
response of an individual or group to it’s
environment.

HOW TO TEACH NEW BEHAVIOURS
• Modeling of correct behaviours.
• Role-playing of correct behaviours.
• Social reinforcement of role-played behaviours.

BETARI Box Model
MY ATTITUDE
AFFECTS
MY BEHAVIOR
AFFECTS
YOUR ATTITUDE
AFFECTS
YOUR BEHAVIOR
AFFECTS

Emotions
• Emotions
• Intense feelings (reactions) that are directed at
specific objects (someone or something)
• Universal emotions:
• Anger
• Fear
• Sadness
• Happiness
• Disgust
• Surprise

Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence (EI) is an assortment of noncognitive skills,
capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to
succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.

Emotional Intelligence is something that can be
consciously learnt, imbibed and improved at any point of
time, through self-observance, introspection and
experience.

Dimensions of EI:
•Self-awareness: Knowing what you’re feeling
•Self-management: Managing emotions and impulses
•Self-motivation: Persisting despite setbacks and failures
•Empathy: Sensing how others are feeling
•Social skills: Handling the emotions of others

Implications for Managers
(For Value, Belief, Attitude and Behavior and Emotional Intelligence)
• Employee selection
• Helps in understanding employee behavior(s)
• By understanding others’ behavior(s), can work better with them

Q1. What is Personality? What are the different characteristics of
personality?
Discuss factors influencing personality.
Q2. What is Self Efficacy/ Self Esteem? Discuss major sources of
development of Self Efficacy/ Self Esteem.
Q3. What are 5 big traits of personality? Discuss each in detail.
Q4. WHAT IS LEARNING? What are the Factors helping (Techniques
used) in learning process:
Q5. What is PERCEPTION? What are the Internal factors affecting
perceptual selection?
Q6. Discuss Important Elements (Biases) in Perception.
Q7. What is Belief? What is value? What are different categories of
value?
Q8. What is attitude? Discuss different characteristics of Attitude.
Q9. What is Cognitive Dissonance? How it can be reduce?

Similarities
between lower-
order factors for
‘psychoticism’ and
the low-order
factors
‘openness’,
‘agreeableness’
and
‘conscientiousness’
(Data from
Matthews, Deary
& Whiteman,
2003)

i). Closure: An individual may perceive a whole while one actually does
not exists. The person’s perceptual process closes the gaps that are
unfilled by from sensory inputs.
For example, head of a project team may take the view that the entire
team agrees to his plan of action whereas there are differing views
among the team members, which remains unarticulated in a formal
manner. On the other hand, a functional team might view/perceive that
their objectives are the objectives of the whole company.

ii). Continuity: An individual tend to perceive continuous
lines/patterns. This leads to inflexible thinking on the part of
organizational members (both managers and employees).
Thus, only the obvious, continuous patterns or relationships
are perceived. For example, a new design for some production
process or product may be limited to obvious flows or
continuous lines/patterns. New innovative ideas or designs
may not be perceived.

iii). Proximity: A group of stimuli that are close together will be
perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example,
several employees in an organization may be identified as a single group
because of physical proximity. Several workers who work on a
particular process may be viewed as a single whole. If the output is low
and the supervisor reports a number of grievances from the group, the
management may perceive that all the workers working on that
particular process are trouble makers whereas in some of them might be
loyal and dedicated employees.

iv). Similarity: The greater the similarity of stimuli, the greater is the
tendency to perceive them as a common group. Similarity is
conceptually related to proximity but in most cases stronger than
proximity. In an organization, all employees who wear blue collars
may be perceived as a common group, when in reality, each employee
is a unique individual. This might also lead to perceptual error termed
as stereotyping.

OCCUPATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES IN
DIFFERENT CULTURES
• Occupational differences
• Values across cultures
• Work centrality

HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF WORK-RELATED
VALUES AND CULTURE
• Power distance – The extent to which society members accept
an unequal distribution of power.
• Uncertainty avoidance – The extent to which people are
uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations.
• Masculinity/Femininity
• Masculine cultures differentiate gender roles, support the dominance of men and
stress economic performance.
• Feminine cultures accept fluid gender roles, stress sexual equality and stress
quality of life.

• Individualism/Collectivism
• Individualistic societies stress independence, individual initiative and privacy.
• Collective cultures favors interdependence and loyalty to family or people.
• Long-term/Short-term orientation
• Cultures with a long-term orientation tend to stress persistence, perseverance,
thrift and close attention to status.
• Cultures with a short-term orientation stress personal steadiness and stability, face-
saving and social workings.

CROSS-CULTURAL VALUE COMPARISONS

POWER DISTANCE AND INDIVIDUALISM

IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURAL VARIATION
• Exporting OB Theories – Successful firms blend the values of their
headquarter’s corporate culture with those of the host nation in overseas
operations.
• Importing OB Theories – Successful importing of management practices is
achieved by tailoring the practices to the home culture’s concerns.
• Appreciating Global Customers – is essential to understanding the needs
and tastes of customers or clients around the world.
• Developing Global Employees – need to select, train and develop
employees.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define values and discuss the implications of cross-cultural variation in
values for organizational behaviour.
• Define attitudes and explain how people develop and change attitudes.
• Explain the concept of job satisfaction and discuss some of its key
contributors.

• Discuss the roles of discrepancy, fairness and disposition in promoting job
satisfaction.
• Outline the various consequences of job satisfaction and explain the
relationship between job satisfaction and mental health, absenteeism,
turnover, performance and organizational citizenship behaviour.
• Differentiate affective, continuance and normative commitment and
explain how organizations can foster commitment and the impact of
changes in the workplace on employee commitment.

Individual Behavior – Personality, Learning, Perception, Attitude & Beliefs

Individual Behavior – Personality, Learning, Perception, Attitude & Beliefs

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