BSc LEVEL COURSE CONTENT. Specially for those who are looking for their assinments.

3. Vitamin B:
 Vitamins B are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cel
l metabolism and synthesis of red blood cells. Though these vitamins share similar
names (B1, B2, B3, etc.), they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexis
t in the same foods. In general, dietary supplements containing all eight are referr
ed to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by
the specific number or name of each vitamin, such as B1 for thiamine, B2 for ribofl
avin, and B3 for niacin, as examples. Some are more commonly recognized by nam
e than by number: niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin and folate.

4. Physiological Roles of Vitamin B1:
 Vitamin B1 is important as it performs several roles in multiple different key proce
sses in the body. It acts as a co enzyme and catalyzes the conversion of carbohy
drates into sugar. It also helps in strengthening the immune system and in the fun
ctioning of the nervous system.
 Thiamine is essential for the normal functioning of heart.
 It also plays role in nervous system development as well as functioning.
 Vitamin B1 regulates the functioning of the nervous system, heart and brain. Its pr
imary function is to efficiently produce energy for cell metabolism from food.
 Thiamine also promotes healthy kidney functioning and slows down the onset and
development of kidney disease in diabetes patients.

5.  It also maintains good eye sight and boosts immunity. This is one of the reasons why
thiamine is used as preventive treatment for cataract. It is also prescribed to AIDS p
atients to partly compensate for the loss of immunity caused by the disease.
 Some people also believe that vitamin B1 is important to maintain mental health and
promote a positive attitude. It may also reduce the likelihood of memory impairments
and diseases like Alzheimer’s.
 Thiamine supplements contain only thiamine while multivitamins work like a combo p
ack and provide other vitamins too.
 Vitamins supplements are available in the form of tablets,lozegens and soft gels. In s
evere cases of thiamine deficiency, thiamine is administered intravenously and intra
muscularly.

6.  Most people fulfill their needs for thiamine from their regular diet. The major vitamin
B1 containing foods include meat products,legumes,whole grain products,nuts,soyab
ean,brown bread. The technology these days has brought about an entire range of e
nhanced or thiamine fortified whole grain options like rice, wheat and pasta.
 Physiological Roles of Vitamin B2:
 It helps to protect cells from oxygen damage.
 It supports the production of cellular energy.
 It maintains the supply of other B vitamins.
 It plays role in recycling of glutathione.

7.  Vitamin B2 plays an important physiological role by participating in the maintenanc
e of vitamin B3.
 Vitamin B2 helps to protect against oxidative stress.
 Similar to Vitamin B1,Vitamin B2 plays a central role in the energy production.
 Vitamin B2 status is strongly affected by intake of vitamin B1,while adequate supp
lies of B1 help to increase levels of B2.
 Disease due to it are anemia, carpal tunnel syndrome,cataracts,migraine,vaginitis.
 In most dietary supplements vitamin B2 is found in simplest form as riboflavin.

8.  Physiological Roles of Vitamin B3(Niacin):
 Niacin helps the body convert food in to glucose, used to produce energy.
 Niacin contributes to the normal function of the nervous system and normal psy
chological function.
 Niacin also contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue.
 Niacin help to prevent water loss and retain skin’s moisture content.
 Niacin improve the surface structure, helping smooth out skin’s texture and red
uce the look out wrinkles.
 Niacin is also helpful in treating many disease like pellagra etc.

9.  Nicotinic Acid is a form of niacin used to reduce cholesterol levels and lower you
r risk of heart disease.
 Niacin could help protect those cells and possibly even lower the risk of type 1 d
iabetes.
 Some time of schizophrenia can be treated with niacin as it help undo the damag
e to brain cells that occurs as result of deficiency.
 Niacin may help reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.

10. Physiological Roles of Vitamin B5( Pantothenic
acid):
 Vitamin B5 play a role in the breakdown of fats and carbohydrates for energy.
 Vitamin B5 is critical to the manufacture of red blood cells as well as sex and stre
ss-related hormones produced in the adrenal glands.
 Vitamin B5 is also important in maintaining a healthy digestive tract.
 Our body needs to vitamin B5 to synthesize cholesterol.
 Vitamin B5 supplement may speed wound healing especially following surgery.

11.  Vitamin B5 can help to improve the texture of hair that is damaged by styling
or chemicals.
 Vitamin B5 can also applied to the skin to relieve itchiness and promote healin
g from skin condition such as insect bites, poison ivy etc.
 Vitamin B5 is great food for weight loss and health.
 Vitamin B5 help to treat fatigue insomnia, depression and burning feet etc.
 Vitamin B5 could increase hair growth in women with a specific type of hair los
s.

12. Vitamin B6:
 Vitamin B6 refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be intercon
verted in biological systems. Vitamin B6 is part of the vitamin B group of essential n
utrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 1
00 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose and lipid metabolism.
Physiological roles of vitamin B6:
 Vitamin B6 has a central role in amino acid metabolism, and as the coenzyme of gly
cogen phosphorylase; it also acts to modulate the activity of steroid and other horm
ones that act by regulation of gene expression.
 PLP is a cofactor in the biosynthesis of five important neurotransmitters: serotonin,
dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). PLP i
s also involved in the synthesis of histamine.

13.  PLP is a coenzyme needed for the proper function of the enzymes cystathionine sy
nthase and cystathionase. These enzymes catalyze reactions in the catabolism of
methionine. Part of this pathway (the reaction catalyzed by cystathionase) also pro
duces cysteine.
 Selenomethionine is the primary dietary form of selenium. PLP is needed as a cofac
tor for the enzymes that allow selenium to be used from the dietary form. PLP also
plays a cofactor role in releasing selenium from selenohomocysteine to produce hyd
rogen selenide, which can then be used to incorporate selenium into selenoproteins.
 PLP is required for the conversion of tryptophan to niacin, so low vitamin B6 status
impairs this conversion.

14. Deficiency of Vitamin B6:
 Weakness
 Sleeplessness
 Peripheral neuropathy
 Personality changes
 Dermatitis
 Glossitis
Vitamin B7:
 Biotin also called vitamin H (the H represents Haar und Haut, German words for “h
air and skin”), vitamin B7 or vitamin B8 (in many countries like France, where vita
min B7 is used for Inositol) is a water-soluble B vitamin. It is involved in a wide ran
ge of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related
to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids.

15. Physiological role of vitamin B7
 Biotin has an unusual structure (above figure), with two rings fused t
ogether via one of their sides. The two rings are ureido and tetrahyd
rothiophene moieties. Biotin is a heterocyclic, S-containing monocar
boxylic acid. It is made from two precursors, alanine and pimeloyl-Co
A via three enzymes. 8-Amino-7-oxopelargonic acid synthase is a p
yridoxal 5’-phosphate enzyme. The pimeloyl-CoA could be produced
by a modified fatty acid pathway involving a malonyl thioester as the
starter. 7,8-Diaminopelargonic acid (DAPA) aminotransferase is unus
ual in using S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) as the NH2 donor. Dethiob
iotin synthetase catalyzes the formation of the ureido ring via a DAP
A carbamate activated with ATP. Biotin synthase reductively cleave
s SAM into a deoxyadenosine radical, which abstracts an H atom fro
m desthiobiotin to give an intermediate that is trapped by the sulfur
donor. This sulfur donor is an iron-sulfur cluster.

16. Deficiency of Vitamin B7:
 Biotin deficiency typically occurs from the absence of the vitamin in the diet, parti
cularly in breastfeeding mothers. Daily consumption of raw egg whites for several
months may result in biotin deficiency, due to their avidin content.
 Deficiency can be addressed with nutritional supplementation.
 Deficiency symptoms include:
 Brittle and thin fingernails
 Hair loss (alopecia)
 Conjunctivitis
 Dermatitis in the form of a scaly, red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and genit
al area.
 Neurological symptoms in adults, such as depression, lethargy, hallucination, and n
umbness and tingling of the extremities.

17. Physiological role of vitamin B9(Folic Acid):
 During early development, folic acid helps form the neural tube. Folic acid is very i
mportant because it can help prevent some major birth defects of the baby’s brai
n (anencephaly) and spine (spina bifida).
 People with dementia often have high levels of an amino acid called homocysteine
in their blood. Folic acid, together with vitamins B12 and B6 appears to lower hom
ocysteine levels and other homocysteine lowering B vitamins may play a key role i
n helping to prevent bone fractures.
 Our bodies produce new red blood cells regularly in a process called erythropoiesi
s. In the infant stage of the red blood cells, folate is required for cell differentiation
, where the stem cell changes into a more specialized cell. It works closely with Vi
tamin B12 and Iron to maintain the production of red blood cells [1] which are res
ponsible for oxygen transport to the cells.

18.  Its prevents it's own deficiency In central nervous system which may lead to de
pression, insomnia, fatigue,anxiety etc.
 The foremost role of folate in the body is in the synthesis and repair of protein
and DNA, and therefore a deficiency of this nutrient could hamper immunity. Re
search shows that Vitamin B9 is essential for the sustenance of T cells [8], and
their reaction to certain protein bits are decreased in folate-deficient organisms
, resulting in slow and impaired functioning.
 6.Alcoholic cirrhotics can develop megaloblastic anemia due to folate deficiency (
Hillman, 1975). Adequate intake of folate in the liver as well as balance dietary in
take of folate may contribute to prevent this condition.

19.  Large immature cells also appear along the length of the gastrointestinal tract,
resulting in abdominal pain and diarrhea.In this way an adequate intake of folic
acid hello googly googly will leads to prevent this abnormality.
 In vivo depletion of dietary vitamin B9 resulted in the reduction of Treg cells in
the small intestine, a site for the absorption of dietary vitamin B9. These findin
gs provide a new link between diet and the immune system, which could maint
ain the immunological homeostasis in the intestine.
 The vitamin B9 possesses concentrations of antioxidants that work to reduce
levels of oxidative stress in the skin. It can reduce the occurrence of acne and
pimples.

20.  It is no surprise, then, that studies have shown that those with autoimmune-indu
ced hair loss have lower levels of folate.Folic acid is essential to the formation of
red blood cells in the body, which have the job of carrying oxygen to all organs, i
ncluding the hair follicles in the skin. The hair follicles rely on that oxygen to fun
ction properly, and without it, they have a much harder time producing keratin, w
hich is the building block of hair.

21. Vitamin B12:
Vitamin B-12 is a water-soluble vitamin, like all other B-vitamins.
This means it can dissolve in water and travel through the bloodstream.
The human body can store vitamin B-12 for up to four years.
Any excess or unwanted vitamin B-12 is excreted in the urine.
Vitamin B-12 is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin.
Sources:
Vitamin B-12 can be found naturally in animal products, such as fish, meat, eggs, and
dairy products. It does not typically occur in plant foods.
Good dietary sources of vitamin B-12 include:
 beef
 pork
 ham
 poultry

22.  Fish
 lamb
dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt
some nutritional yeast products and eggs
Some types of soya milk and breakfast cereals are fortified with vitamin B-12.

23.  Physiological functions:
 Vitamin B-12 is crucial to the normal function of the brain and the nervous sys
tem.
 It is also involved in the formation of red blood cells and helps to create and re
gulate DNA.
 The metabolism of every cell in the body depends on vitamin B-12.
 It plays a part in the synthesis of fatty acids and energy production.
 Vitamin B-12 enables the release of energy by helping the human body absorb f
olic acid.
 The human body produces millions of red blood cells every minute. These cells
cannot multiply properly without vitamin B-12.

24.  Vitamin B12 is a nutrient that helps keep the body's nerve and blood cells healthy
and helps make DNA, the genetic material in all cells.
 The production of red blood cells reduces if vitamin B-12 levels are too low Ane
mia can occur if the red blood cell count drops
 Vitamin B12 also helps prevent a type of anemia called megaloblastic anaemia tha
t makes people tired and weak
Deficiency:
 Vitamin B-12 deficiency occurs when the body does not receive enough vi
tamin B-12.
 It can result in irreversible and potentially severe damage, especially to the
nervous system and brain.

25.  Even slightly lower-than-normal levels of vitamin B-12 can trigger deficiency
symptoms:
• depression
• confusion
• memory problems
• fatigue.
• Other symptoms of vitamin B-12 deficiency include constipation, loss of appetite
, and weight loss.

26. Vitamin C:
Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nu
trient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the prepar
ation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry.
Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin and is found in variable quantities in fruits a
nd vegetables and organ meats (e.g. liver and kidney).
Physiological role of vitamin C:
 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is required for the synthesis of collagen, carnitine
, catecholamine and the neurotransmitter norepinephrine.
 Vitamin C also plays an important role in protection against oxidative stres
s.

27.  Transporters for vitamin C and its oxidized form dehydroascorbate (DHA) are cr
ucial to keep vitamin concentrations optimal in the body.
 It acts as a cofactor to the mixed-function oxidase enzymes which catalyze thes
e chemical pathways.
 Vitamin C catalyzes the post-translational hydroxylation of proline and lysine res
idues incorporated into various proteins found in supporting tissues such as colla
gen, osteoid and intercellular cement. Hydroxylation of these residues imparts te
nsile strength by allowing fibers to cross-link within the protein.
 Collagen is one of the important proteins whose formation is catalyzed by vitami
n C, and it forms a fundamental part of connective tissue. Vitamin C is thus vital
to body growth and wound repair.

28.  An important role of vitamin C is its antioxidant role. It is a powerful reducing agent,
and therefore readily takes part in redox reactions, shifting between the two forms as
corbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid.
 Vitamin C is the primary water-soluble antioxidant in the body. It protects cell memb
ranes, DNA, cell proteins and lipids from the oxidizing effects of free radicals and rea
ctive oxygen species.
 Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is an essential requirement for various physiological proc
esses because of its reducing activity.
 vitamin C has beneficial effects on the survival time in patients with terminal cancer.

29. Deficiency of vitamin C
 Scurvy
 Anaemia
 Tiredness and weakness.
 Muscle and joint pains.
 Easy bruising.
 Spots that look like tiny, red-blue bruises on your skin.