It guides Nursing students to do their research activities in a best way. It definitely pave a clear way.

2. RESEARCH DESIGNS –
QUANTITAIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
HI, MYSELF,
Ms. A. PAVITHRA
M.Sc (N) I YEAR
DEPT., OF MSN
CON-EIMS

3. INTRODUCTION
• Research designs is a broader plan to conduct a study. The
research design is the framework and a systematic plan of what is
to be done, how it will be done and how the data will be analyzed.
• It includes the description of the research approaches, dependent
and independent variables, sampling design and a planned format
for the data collection, analysis and presentation.
• In short as a single research design may be fall short to answer all
the research or hypothesis, investigation may use a combination of
different research designs.

4. DEFINITION:
 The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information in
a research study.
- SURESH K SHARMA
 Research design is a plan of how, when and where data are to be
collected and analyzed.

5. ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
DESIGN:

6. SELECTION OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
 Research design are plans and the procedure for research that span
the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection and analysis. In order to meet the aims and objectives of a
study, researchers must select the most appropriate design. The
selection of a research design largely depends on the,
Nature of the research problem.
The resources available (cost, time, expertise of the researcher).
Accessibility of subjects .
Research ethics.

7. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF
RESEARCH DESIGNS
@ Nature of research problem.
@ Purpose of study.
@ Researchers knowledge and experience.
@ Researchers motivation and interest.
@ Researcher ethics and principles.
@ Subjects/participation.
@ Resources and availability of time.
@ Possible control on extraneous variables.
@ Users of study findings.

8. VALIDITY OF RESEARCH
DESIGNS:
• There are two important criteria for evaluating the
creditability and dependability of the research results. They
are
Internal validity
External validity.

9. CONTD.,
INTERNAL VALIDITY:
• It validates whether the independent variables actually made a
difference. Did the interventions or treatment lead to the
results or were the results a response to the other factor.
• Internal validity will be helpful in making the inferences that
the independent variable influences the dependent variable.

10. FACTORS AFFECTING
INTERNAL VALIDITY
INSTRUMENTATION CHANGE
MATURATION OF
SUBJECT
TESTING MORTALITY
HISTORY
SELECTION
BIAS

11. Contd.,
EXTERNAL VALIDITY:
• It refers to the extent to which the results can be
generalized to a large population.
• External Validity explores the generalization beyond
specific treatments to check the results and findings
come out to be same with other setting with other
subject population but with related variables.

12. FACTORS AFFECTING THE
EXTERNAL VALIDITY:
Hawthorne effect.
Experimental effect.
Reactive effect of pretest.
Novelty effect.
People.
Place.
Time.

13. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS:
• Research designs are classified in two broad categories and
further they have several subtypes. They are,
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN

14. QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS:
 Experimental research design.
 Non-experimental research designs.
 The additional research designs.

15. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGNS
ACCORDING TO RILEY:
Experimental research design is a powerful design for testing
hypotheses of causal relationship among variables. Ideally in the
experimental design the investigator throw in a sharp relief of
explanatory variables in which he is interested, controlling and
manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on
the dependent variables and minimize the effect of extraneous
variables, which might confound his results.

16. TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS MAIN FEATURES
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:
 Post test only control design.
 Pretest-posttest control group design.
 Solomon four group design
 Factorial design
 Randomized block design.
 Crossover design
 Latin square.
Manipulation of independent variable, in the
presence of control group randomization
QUASI EXPERIMNENTAL DESIGN
 Non-randomized control group design
 Time-series design
Manipulation of independent variable but
absence of either randomization or control
group.
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 One-shot case design
 One group pretest-posttest design.
Manipulation of independent variables but
limited control over extraneous variables, no
randomization and control group.

17. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
True experimental research designs are those, where research
have complete control over the extraneous variables and can
predict confidently that observed effect on the dependable
variables is only due to manipulation of the independent variables.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The experimental research design must essentially consists the
following three characteristics.
Manipulation.
Control.
Randomization.

18. CONTD.,
MANIPULATION:
Refers to conscious control of the independent
variable by the researcher through treatment or
interventions to observe its effect on dependent
variable.

19. CONTD.,
CONTROL:
 Control refers to the use of control group and controlling the
effects of extraneous variable on the dependent variable, in which
researcher is interested.
 In control group number and characteristics of the subject taken
are same as that of experimental group, but these subjects receive
no experiments treatment or intervention at all and merely
observation of dependent variable is made to compare with the
experimental group. Where experimental group receives planned
treatment or intervention.
 Some of the measures ensures the control on extraneous variables
are:
– Matching
– Counter balancing.
– Homogeneity by statistical test.

20. CONTD.,
RANDOMIZATION:
 Randomization means that every subject has an equal chance of
being assigned to any group either experimental or control group.
This is also known as random assignment of subjects, which
involves the placement of study subjects on a random basis.
 Randomization is used in true experimental research designs to
minimize the threat of internal validity of the study and to
eliminate the effect of extraneous variable on dependent variables.
 Chances of systemic bias is eliminated.

21. TYPES OF TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:
Post test only control design.
Pretest-posttest control group design.
Solomon four group design
Factorial design
Randomized block design.
Crossover design
Latin square.

22. CONTD.,
POST TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN
 Composed of two randomly assigned groups (i.e) experimental
and control but neither of which on pre tested before the
implementation of treatment on the experimental group.
For example, “To study the effect of an educational
intervention related to urinary incontinence on the subsequent help
seeking behavior of older adults”.

23. CONTD.,
PRETEST-POSTTEST ONLY DESIGN
 In this research design subject are randomly assigned to
experimental and control group and before treatment observation is
made on dependent variable among both the groups (pre-test).
For example, “An experimental study to assess the effectiveness of
cognitive behavioral therapy interventions for patients with breast
cancer”.

24. CONTD.,
SOLOMON 4 GROUP DESION
 Four groups can be used one experimental and three are control,
sometimes are divided equally two control and the other are
experimental. It is a stronger design than the post test only but
require so complicated statistical analysis.
For example. A study to assess the effects of a caring-based
counseling intervention on the emotional wellbeing of women who
had a miscarriage.
ADVANTAGES
 Allow the examiner to examine
the effect of the pre test
on the post test.
DISADVANTAGES
 Mortality can affect the results.

25. CONTD.,
FACTORIAL DESIGN
 In factorial design researcher manipulates two or more
independent variables simultaneously
to observe their effects on
dependent variables.
 This design is useful when there
are more than two independent variables,
called as factor to be tested.
For example: “A researcher wants to observe the effects of
two different protocols of mouth care on prevention of ventilator
associated pneumonia when performed at different frequency in a
day”.

26. CONTD.,
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN:
• When there are large number of experimental comparison groups, the
randomized block design is used to bring homogeneity among selected different
groups.
• This is simple method to reduce the variability between the treatment groups by
a more homogeneous combination of the subjects through randomized block
design.
• For example, “A researcher wants to examine the effect of three different
antihypertensive drugs among patients with hypertension. In this example to
ensure the homogeneity among the subjects under treatment. Researcher
randomly places the subjects in homogeneous group like patients with primary
hypertension, diabetic patients with hypertension and renal patients with
hypertension.

27. EXAMPLE - RBD
TYPES OF
ANTIHYPERTEN
-SIVE DRUGS
BLOCKS
PATIENTS WITH
PRIMARY
HYPERTENSION (I)
DIABETIC PATIENTS
WITH
HYPERTENSION (II)
RENAL PATIENTS
WITH
HYPERTENSION
A A,I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,III
C C,I C,III B,III

28. CONTD.,
CROSSOVER DESIGN
 In this design, subjects are exposed to more than one
treatment, where subjects are randomly assigned to different
orderings of treatment. It is also known as repeat measures
design.
 Through crossover design is considered as extremely
powerful research design but some time it is not effective
because when subjects are exposed to two different
conditions, they may be influenced in the second condition
by their experience in the first condition.

29. CONTD.,
For example, “We are comparing the effectiveness of the
chlorohexidine and saline mouth care protocol, first we
implement the chlorohexidine mouth care protocol on group1
and saline mouth care protocol on subjects of group II. Later
treatment is crossover; where group I receives the saline mouth
care and group II receive the chlorohexidine mouth care”.
GROUPS PROTOCOLS OF THE MOUTH CARE
GROUP I CHLORHEXIDINE
(A)
SALINE (B)
GROUP II SALINE (B) CHLORHEXIDINE
(A)

30. CONTD.,
ADVANTAGES
• Most powerful designs to establish the casual relationship
between independent and dependent variables.
• Controlled environment in which the study s conducted can yield
a greater degree of purity in observation.
• Conditions not found in a natural setting can be created in an
experimental setting where the independent variable is
manipulated by investigator.

31. CONTD.,
DISADVANTAGES
• Most of the use of experimental research design is not possible in
studies conducted on human due to ethical problems.
• Danger to physical and psychological health of the human
subjects.
• Many of the human variables do not have valid criterion measure
them like patient welfare or level of wellness.
• In natural setting like hospital or community, it is not possible to
impose the control over extraneous variables.
• Experiments are often impractical where the effect of
independent variable may require a lengthy period of time before
it emerges as a response in the criterion measures.
• Very difficult to get cooperation from the study participants

32. CONTD.,
LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
• A class of experimental designs that allow for two sources of
blocking.
• Can be constructed for any number of treatments, but there is a
cost. If there are t treatments, then t2 experimental units will be
required.
• If one of the blocking factors is left out of the design, we are left
with a design that could have been obtained as a randomized
block design.
• Analysis of a Latin square is very similar to that of a RBD, only
one more source of variation in the model.
• Two restrictions on randomization.

33. CONTD.,

34. Contd.,
ADVANTAGES
• Most powerful designs to establish the casual relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
• Controlled environment in which the study s conducted can yield a greater
degree of purity in observation.
• Conditions not found in a natural setting can be created in an experimental
setting where the independent variable is manipulated by investigator.
DISADVANTAGES
• Most of the use of experimental research design is not possible in studies
conducted on human due to ethical problems.
• Danger to physical and psychological health of the human subjects.
• Many of the human variables do not have valid criterion measure them like
patient welfare or level of wellness.
• In natural setting like hospital or community, it is not possible to impose
the control over extraneous variables.
• Experiments are often impractical where the effect of independent variable
may require a lengthy period of time before it emerges as a response in the
criterion measures.
• Very difficult to get cooperation from the study participants.

35. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
STUDY
• Quasi experimental research involved the manipulation of
inadequate variable to observe the effect on dependent variable but
it lacks randomization.
• Quasi experimental designs have properly of manipulation.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
• Manipulation of the independent variables to observe the effects
on the dependent variable.
• Lack of randomization.

36. TYPES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL
RESEACH DESIGNS
QUASI
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Non
Randomized
control group
design
Time series
research
design

37. NON RANDOMIZED CONTROL GROUP
DESIGN
• It is also knows as non-equivalent control group design.
• This degree as identical to the pre-test control group design,
except there is no random assignment of subjects in
experimental and control group.
• Experimental and control groups are selected without
randomization and dependent variables are observed in
experimental as well as control groups.
• Later experimental group receive treatment and after that post-
test assess the effect of treatment on experimental group.

38. TIME SERIES DESIGN
• This design is useful when experimenter want to measure the
effects of a treatment over a long period of time.
• Experimenter would continue to administer the treatment and
measure the effects a number of times during the course of the
experiment.
• Single subject research in which researcher carries out an
experiment on one individual or on a small number of
individuals by alternating between administering a treatment
and then withdrawing the treatment to determine the
effectiveness of the intervention.

39. ADVANTAGES
• More practical, feasible to conduct research studies in nursing.
• More suitable for real word natural
setting than true experimental
research designs.
DISADVANTAGES
• There is no control over the extraneous variable influencing the
dependent variables.
• Absence of control group or lack of control over the research setting,
make the results of this design less reliable and weak in establishment
of casual relationship between independent and dependent variables.

40. PRE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
 This research design is considered as very weak
because researcher has very little control over the
research. It includes,
 One shot case design.
 One group pre test/post test design.

41. TYPES OF PRE EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
ONE SHOT CASE DESIGN:
In this research design, a single experimental group is
expressed to an experimental treatment and observations are
made after the implementation of treatment and observation
are made subjects to experimental group and no control group.

42. ONE GROUP PRE TEST/POST TEST DESIGN
• It is the simplest type of quasi experimental design, where only
one group of study subjects is selected as an experimental group.
Than pre test observation of the dependent variables is made
before implementation of the treatment to the made to assess the
effect treatment on the group.

43. NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
 The researcher design in which variables are not deliberately
manipulated, not the setting is controlled.
 In non experimental research, researchers collect data without
making changes or introducing treatments. Data obtained are
analyzed and the results may lead to the formation of hypothesis
that can then be tested experimentally.

44. NEED FOR NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Non-experimental research design is frequently used by the nurse
researchers.
• Following are the main situation only non-experimental designs
can be used to conduct a study.
• The studies in which the independent variable is not manipulable.
• The studies in which it is unethical to manipulate the independent
variable (i.e) manipulation may cause physical or psychological
harm to subjects.
• The studies or research situation where it is not practically to
conduct an experimental.

45. TYPES OF NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS MAIN FEATURES
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 Univarient descriptive design
 Exploratory research design
 Comparative design
Phenomenon occurs in natural setting while
imposing any control or manipulation.
CORRELATIONAL/EC-POSTFACTO
 Prospective design
 Retrospective design
Cause and effect relationship
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
 Cross sectionl design
 Cohort studies
Examining the phenomenon in respect to the
time.
EPIDEIOLOGICAL
 Case control studies
 Cohort studies
Epidemiological is the investigation of the
distribution and causes of diseases inb a
population.
SURVEY RESEARCH Investigation in which self reported data are
collected from sample with the purpose of
describing population on some variables of
interest.

46. CONTD.,
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
• The purpose is to observe describe and
document aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as
a starting point for hypothesis generation or
theory development.

47. CONTD.,
MAIN FEATURES
• Used to observe, documenting and describe a phenomenon occurring the natural
setting without any manipulation or control.
• Designed to gain more information about characteristics within a particular field
of inquiry.
• Provide a picture of a situation as it occur in natural setting.
• Do not involve the manipulation of variables and variables are studies in as they
exist in real world.
• Used to develop theories, identify problems with current practices, justify
current practices, make judgments or determine what practices are doing in
similar situations.
• Bias is prevented through operational definition of variables, large sample size,
random sampling technique, valid and reliable research tools and formal data
collection methods.
• Descriptive designs include identification of a phenomenon of interest
identifying the variables within phenomenon, developing operational definitions
of the variables and describing the variables.

48. TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:
Univarient.
Exploratory.
Comparative.
Correlation.

49. CONTD.,
UNIVARIENT DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN:
• Univarient descriptive designs are undertaken to describe
frequency of occurrence of a phenomenon. this design is not
necessarily focus on the study of a single variable. The may be
study of one or more variables in a study.
For example, A researcher is interested in assessing the
experience of patient suffering with rheumatoid arthritis.
In this study researcher may describe the frequency of different
symptoms experienced by the patients suffering with rheumatoid
arthritis and type of treatment they had during the course of disease
etc. there are multiple variables in this research study.

50. CONTD.,
EXPLORATORY DESIGN:
• Exploratory design is used to identify, explore and describe the
existing phenomenon and its related factors.
• In other words, it is not the simple description of the frequency of
occurrence of a phenomenon but it is exploration of phenomenon
and its related factors in-depth to improve further understanding
about a less understood phenomenon.
• Example, An exploratory study to assess the multifactorial
dimensions of fall and home safety measure for elderly people
living in selected communities in city Ludhiana.

51. CONTD.,
COMPARATIVE DESIGN
• Comparative design involves comparing and contrasting two or
more samples of study subjects on one or more variables, often at
a single point of time.
• This design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of
selected attribute such as knowledge level, perceptions and
attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms and so on.
Example, A comparative study on health problems among
rural older people in district Bikaner, Rajasthan.

52. CONTD.,
CORRELATIONAL/EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN
• This is non experimental design where researcher examines the
relationship between two or more variables in a natural setting without
manipulation or control.
MAIN FEATURES:
• Researchers examine the strength of relationship between variables.
• Effect of independent variable is observed on dependent variable without
manipulating the independent variable.
• No difficulty in identifying dependent and independent variables.
• Magnitude and direction of relationship of independent and dependent
variable is measured by using the correlation coefficient statistical
average, where results rage bet6ween -1 to +1.
• Theoretically a positive relationship means increase in one variable leads
to increase in another variable. While negative relationship means
increase in one variable leads to decrease I another variable or vice versa.
• In epidemiological language these studies are known as cause and effect
study where cause and effect relationship is investigated in natural setting
without experimental interventions.

53. CONTD.,
TYPES OF CORRELATION RESEARCH
DESIGN
 Prospective research design
 Retrospective research design.

54. CONTD.,
PROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:
• Prospective research design is a design in which researcher related the
present to future.
• Starts with presumed cause and then go to presumed effects. In this
research design, researchers observe phenomena from cause to effect.
• Example, “A researcher is conducting a prospective study on affect of
maternal infection during pregnancy on fetal development and
pregnancy outcome”.
• In this study research starts observing the pregnant women and
collects the data from pregnant women regarding any history of
infection among women during pregnancy, later observe fetal
development and pregnancy outcome.

55. CONTD.,
RETROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
• Under the influence of substance abuse?” Retrospective research
design is a design in which researcher study the current
phenomenon by seeking information from past.
• Researcher linked the present phenomenon with the past
phenomenon.
• Researcher has background approach to study a phenomenon,
where researcher moves from effect to identify the cause.
• Example “A retrospective study on substance abuse related high
risk factors among traumatic head injury patients admitted in
neurosurgery ICU of DMCH, Ludhiana. In this study first
researcher approach head injury patients and than try to identify
that how much many head injuries were happened

56. CONTD.,
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
• Developmental research design examines the phenomenon in
respect to the time.
• Developmental research designs are generally used as adjunct
research design with other research designs such as cross-
sectional descriptive, longitudinal correlation research designs
and so on.

57. CONTD.,
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
 Cross sectional research design.
 Longitudinal research design.

58. CONTD.,
CROSS SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
• Cross sectional research design in which researcher collects data
at one point of time (one period of data collection).
• These studies are more easy and convenient to carry out.
Example, “A researchers is interested in assessing the
awareness about swine flu among people of an area. Here
researcher interactions only once to collect awareness related data
from respondents”.

59. CONTD.,
LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN:
• Longitudinal research design is used to collect data over an
extended time period (long time study). Its value is ability to
demonstrate change over time.
• Example, “A researcher is interested in perception of nursing
students towards nursing professions from beginning of nursing
program to the end of the nursing program. In this example, it is
approoriate to use the longitudinal research design to study this
phenomenon”.

60. CONTD.,
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
• Epidemiological is the study to investigate the distribution and
cause of the diseases in population.
• Epidemiological studies are generally conducted to investigate
causes of different diseases in either prospective approaches
(cause to effect) or retrospective approach (effect to cause).
• However in epidemiology different terminology is used to
prospective and retrospective designs. Prospective studies are
called cohort studies and retrospective studies are called as case
control studies.

61. TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
 Case Control
 Cohort Study.

62. CONTD.,
CASE-CONTROL STUDIES:
• In this design, causes of a disease are investigated after the
occurrence of a disease.
Example, “A researcher investigates the history of smoking in
patients diagnosed with lung cancer”.
COHORT STUDIES:
• In this design, a longitudinal approach is used to investigate
the occurrence of a disease in existing presumed causes.
Example, “A researcher longitudinally observes the smokers
for developmental of lung cancer”.

63. CONTD.,
SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
• A survey research design, which is used to collect information from
different subjects within the total population having same
characteristics of interest.
• If a survey is conducted on a sample of population it is named as
sample survey.
• If conducted on entire population it is called a population survey such
as censuses etc.
• Survey helps to collect wide range of data from sample such as action,
attitude, opinion, perception, behavior, awareness, practices etc.,

64. CONTD.,
MAIN FEATURES:
• It enables the investigation to collect current information about
whatever it is wish to study.
• Information is collected from a variety of subjects who resembles the
total population.
• Mode of inquiry that relies heavily upon the validity of verbal reports.
• The information is obtained directly fro the respondent by self
reporting questionnaires.
• Personal interviews are registered as most useful method of collecting
survey data, because of the in-depth and quality of information can be
obtained.

65. CONTD.,
TYPES OF SURVEY:
Descriptive survey
Exploratory survey
Comparative survey.
Correlational survey.

66. CONTD.,
DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY:
• Survey is undertaken to describe the frequency of occurrence of
a phenomenon rather than to study relationship.
EXPLORATORY SURVEY:
• Survey of a phenomenon and its related factors about which is
not much known.
COMPARATIVE SURVEY:
• Comparing and contrasting the existence of phenomenon two or
more groups.
CORRELATIONAL SURVEY:
• Study of relationship between two or more variables in a natural
setting without manipulation or control.

67. CONTD.,
BASED ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:
– Written survey
– Oral survey
– Electronic survey

68. CONTD.,
ADVANTAGES
• They tend to be more close to reality.
• Most suitable for the nursing research studies.
• Number of the human characteristics are inherently not subject to
experimental manipulation (E.G blood type, personality, health
beliefs, medical diagnosis) the effects of these characteristics on
other phenomena cannot be studied experimentally.
• Variables that could technically be manipulated.
• There are many research situations in which it is simply not
practical to conduct a true experiment.

69. CONTD.,
DISADVANTAGES
• They leave the actual reason for the association found quite
unclear.
• Non experimental studies are conducted for comparative purpose
used the non randomly selected groups, which may not be
homogeneous and tend to possess the different traits or
characteristics which may affect the authenticity and
generaliability of the study results.

70. OTHER ADDITIONAL RESEARCG STUDIES
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS MAIN FEATURES
METHODOLOGICAL STUIES Research conducted to develop, test and evaluate the
research instruments and methods.
META-ANALYSIS Quantitatively combining and integrating the findings
of the multiple research studies on a particular topic.
SECONDARY DATAANALYSIS A research design in which the data collected in one
research in re-analyzed by another researcher, usually
to test new hypothesis.
OUTCOME RESEARCH Outcome research involves the evaluation of care
practice an systems in place. It is used in nursing to
develop evidence-based practice and improve nursing
actions.
EVALUATION STUDIES It is research design the involves the judgment about
success of programmes, practices, procedure or
policies.
OPERATIONAL RESEARCH Operational research involves the study of complex
human organizations and services to develop new
knowledge about institutions, programmes, use of
facilities and personnel in order to improve working
efficiency of an organization.

71. METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES
 The main problem in nursing research is to find appropriate
measurement tools or techniques to measure nursing-related
phenomena. Nurses frequently use tools developed by other
disciples, such as psychology, sociology etc. these tools from other
discipline can be useful it they are found appropriate to measure the
nursing related phenomena, but most of the time tools are used
because of the unavailability of the reliable and valid tools to
measure the nursing related phenomena. Methodological studies are
conducted to develop validate, test and evaluate the research
instruments and methods. Basically, a methodological research
includes the following steps, however these steps require sound,
specified and exhaustive literature review to identify the theories
and understand the construct,

72. CONTD.,
 Defining the behavior or construct to measure.
 Formulating the items for tool.
 Developing instruments for users and respondents.
 Testing the reliability and validity of research tool.
FOR EXAMPLE, “A Researcher may conduct a methodological
study to develop a pressure sore risk assessment tool for patients
admitted in orthopedic studies”.

73. METAANALYSIS
 A Meta analysis statistically merges the outcomes studies that
hint a research hypothesis that is shared. Just as individual studies
summarizes data collected from many participants in order to
answer a specific research question (i.e) each participants in a
separate data point in the analysis, a meta analysis summarizes
data from several individual studies that concern a specific
research question.
 Meta analysis is considered as the statistical analysis of a large
amount of analyzed results from individual studies for the
purpose of integrating the findings. It is believed that the
decisions affecting clinical practices. However, when results of
the several similar studies are analyzed together, the findings of
such studies may be more effective or powerful. Meta analysis
studies start with selecting studies with similar variables and
population samples, followed by identifying and coding study
characteristics, and finally statistically analyzing and reporting the
assessed findings of the meta-analysis study.

74. STEPS IN CONDUCTING A META-
ANALYSIS
It includes 5 steps;
Define hypothesis.
Locate the studies.
Input data.
Calculate effect sizes
Analyze variables

75. SECONDARY DATAANALYSIS
Secondary data analysis is a research design in which the data
collects by one researcher is reanalyzed by another researcher,
usually to test new hypotheses. Sometimes researcher collect lots
of data in a study; out of which some of the data is left unused or
unanalyzed that is later taken up and utilized by another
researcher, which is called the secondary data analysis research.
in this research design, researchers analyze data collected in
previous studies are considered as most convenient, time saving
and costly affair in a research activities A secondary analysis can
be performed with the qualitative and quantitative.

76. EXAMPLES
QUANTITAIVE STUDY:
A Researcher utilized data from a past study of patients having
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to test an analytical model
of factors affecting functional status in the disorders.
QUALITATIVE STUDY:
The client with end stage renal disease, a researcher did a secondary
analysis of data. The initial study was devised to evaluate how and
by whom was the decisions about treatment modality done the
secondary study evaluated factors, influencing those decisions.

77. EVALUATION STUDIES
 In the era of evidenced based practice and client centered care,
evaluation studies assume treat importance. Evaluation research
studies are an applied form of research design, which involves the
judgment about how well a specific programmed, practice,
procedure or policy is working. Evaluation studies may also be
used to determine the effectiveness or value of processes,
personnel, equipment and the material used in a particular setting.
 Nurses can evaluate their practice by reflecting on what they do.
The evaluation studies are generally carried out when the
researcher wants to find out that how and to what extent the
objectives on a particular activity have been of are being met.
 The aim of the evaluation studies is to improve the particular
activity; it makes sense that the original aims objectives of an
activity the benchmark against which effectiveness or success is
evaluated.

78. CONTD.,
It is of two types,
 Formnative Evaluation
 Sumative Evaluation
FORMATIVE EVALUATION: It refers to the assessment of a
programme as it is being implemented; the focus is on evaluation
process of a programme rather than the outcome.
SECONDARY EVALUATION: Refers to the assessment of the
outcome of a programme that is conducted after the completion of
the progrmme.
EXAMPLE OF EVALUATION RESEARCH: “A evaluation study on the
effectiveness of an indigenous nursing service and nursing
education integration model at AIIMS, Rishikesh”.

79. OPERATIONAL RESEARH
Operational research is the application of scientific method of
investigation to the study of complex human organizations and
services. While conducting operational research, one is
concerned all the time with the activities of a group of people
with the purpose of inducing some changes.
The main objectives of operational research are to develop new
knowledge about institutions, programmes, use of facilities,
and personnel in order to improve working efficiency of an
organization. Operational research translates research concepts
into measureable phenomena. It is very useful in nursing
studies as we require evidence based practices to improve
nursing services. It may be helpful in effectively designing a
hospital or ward for an efficient flow of man and material,
constructing communication systems at low cost,
computerizing patient information storage for efficiency etc.

80. CONTD.,
• In operational research studies, researchers assess the
effectiveness of different programmes, facilities and personnel
models in natural setting as they are implemented to improve
work efficiency of an origination.
FOR EXAMPLE: “An operational research study on patients
satisfaction with and awareness of single and double-corridor
ward designs in selected hospitals at New Delhi”.

81. OUTCOME RESEARCH
 Outcome research involves the evaluation of care practices and system
in place. It is used in nursing develop evidence based practice and to
improve nursing services. It is a research that is planned to assess or
record the end result of health care services. These studies are conducted
in response to the increasing demand from public to justify care
practices and systems that impertinent treatment outcome and reduce
costs of care.
Structure
Processes
Outcome
FOR EXAMPLE: “An outcome research study on patients
satisfaction with existing nursing care model in DMCH, Ludhiana”.