1. Inequality and Stratification Discussion
Inequality and Stratification DiscussionORDER HERE FOR ORIGINAL, PLAGIARISM-FREE
PAPERS ON Inequality and Stratification DiscussionThe “History” powerpoint is for
background on what we are studying and the “Theory” powerpoint is about theoretical
explanations for inequality and stratification. This powerpoint will help answer the
discussion questions. Be sure to look at the notes sections in the powerpoints! Inequality
and Stratification DiscussionVideo Links:Intersectionality
video: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-intersectionality-video-
breaks-down-basics-180964665/Barbara Ehrenreich interviewed about her work on the
book, “Nickel and
Dimed”: https://util.wwnorton.com/jwplayer?type=video&msrc=/wwnorton.college.public
/coursepacks/soc/vids/american_ruling_class_02.mp4&csrc=/wwnorton.college.public/co
ursepacks/soc/vids/american_ruling_class_02.vtt&isrc=/wwnorton.college.public/coursep
acks/soc/vids/american_ruling_class_02.jpgPredatory Lending and Exploitation
video: https://util.wwnorton.com/jwplayer?type=video&msrc=/wwnorton.college.public/c
oursepacks/soc/vids/maxed_out.mp4&csrc=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/vi
ds/maxed_out.vtt&isrc=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/vids/maxed_out.jpgQu
estions: Recent theory emphasizes the need to take an “intersectional” approach to the
study of inequality. Explain what this means.What are the benefits of taking an
intersectional approach?Present either a question you have after reading this week’s
articles, or a comment on something you found enlightening or particularly interesting this
week.Inequality and Stratification Discussionattachment_1attachment_2Unformatted
Attachment PreviewHistorical Context Historical origins – Broad Overview • Overall:
systems of inequality typically involve economic exploitation and/or attempts to support
the current economic system. • In early hunting and gathering societies, labor was assigned
by age and gender • Different roles assigned men and women contributed to development
of gender inequality • Women – did gathering, cooking, childcare, weaving (they were often
near the home) • Men – did hunting, warring activities, contacts with other groups (often
away from home) • These roles contributed to males as leaders & to the development of
stereotypes about genders • As systems of social class developed, it developed in a
“gendered” process • Class stratification depended on a gendered system Overview
continued • As concepts of race developed (along with colonialism and slavery), it
developed in relation to class and gender systems in place. • More recently, sexual
orientation became socially constructed. Recently the concept of gender dualism is also
2. being challenged. Social Class and Gender • There have been three major types of
stratification systems: • Feudalism and estate systems (people are born into fixed statuses
as either land holding nobility or as peasant/serf) • Caste systems (people are born into
fixed statuses in a hierarchy) • In these systems, people were required to exercise
“homogamy” (like marrying like) and were limited in marrying outside their status/caste. •
Class systems (there is open-ness for people to change their status. Status is based on
economic position, education and occupation, buying power, and lifestyle) • In reality most
people, as adults, are in a similar class position as their parents. They were raised to fit into
this class. We call this the “reproduction of class” from one generation to the next. Class and
Gender continued • Gerda Lerner argues that class inequality developed in a context of
gender inequality, and was supported by gender inequality. • Lerner makes 3 points: 1.
Command of women’s sexuality and reproductive capacities was a major source of private
property. • • • • Women were exchanged as property (see bride price norms) Women’s
sexuality was tightly controlled, while men’s was not A male heir was often required, or
marriage could be ended by groom and his family Women’s “reproductive labor” includes
not only birthing, but all the work done to bring the next generation into the workforce
(childcare, cooking, cleaning, etc.) Class and Gender continued 2. Classes are formed and
maintained by a gendered system of marriage and inheritance. • Norms of homogamy keep
property within family lines • Inequality and Stratification DiscussionMales typically
inheritors, keeping property in male hands (women had few property rights) • For women,
their class is mediated by their relation to a male 3. Class is experienced differently
depending on our gender and race, nationality, and stage of life. Class and Gender continued
• With mature capitalism, women have gained more access to resources and power. •
Women still find their sexuality more regulated than do men (deviant labels for women are
much more prevalent than for males) • Women still face economic disadvantage compared
to males • Women are less likely found in high level governmental or corporate statuses The
social construction of race • Race is a socially defined category • Racial categories and
boundaries vary from place to place and over time • There is more variation in
characteristics within a race than between races • The concept of race developed along with
colonialism and slavery (Zuberi) • Through history slaves have been of all colors and
nations, and it typically was a temporary status. • As large scale plantation export began, the
African slave trade grew to tremendous proportions. • With the growth of liberal
democracies, like the U.S., there was a need to justify slavery. • Concepts of racial groups,
and of a racial hierarchy, justified these systems (early scientific ideas (social Darwinism)
were used to define successful European groups as superior) Racial categories tend to be
portrayed as having clear boundaries “dualism” – (perceiving as two opposing categories)
“essentialism” – (perceiving as differences in basic essences between groups) This results in
a tendency to explain group differences in behavior/situation as a matter of group
member’s essential natures. Perceptions of groups influenced immigration policy over time
in the U.S. (see Fitzgerald et al.) Race is socially constructed with no clear boundaries
between groups Bushman of the Kalahari have epicanthic eye folds Many Australian
Aboriginals have African-like facial features, but blond hair There has been a great amount
of mixing of “races” The Irish, Italians, Jews, and Chinese were seen as “colored”/“nonwhite”
3. in the 19th century until the 1920’s when their immigration subsided. 19th century mass
media quote about the Irish: “They are more like tribes of squalid apes than human beings”
“Mutual: Both are glad there are bars between ‘em” Anti-Irish prejudice was Rampant and
open (Judge magazine, 1891) From a 1880’s U.S. magazine (portrays an Irish and a Chinese
immigrant) The definition of a person’s race can depend on their social class U.S. slaves
were often referred to “black” property owners as “white” Brazilian expression – “money
whitens” Also in Puerto Rico – race is fluid and depends on economic status The
development of minority groups (disadvantaged groups) • Three factors are involved in the
development of minority groups: • Ethnocentrism (judging other’s behavior by our own
cultural standards, and therefore seeing our ways as superior) • Competition (sense of
competition over scarce resources like jobs increases hostility against “out groups”
(different from ourselves) • Unequal power (one group already has more resources and
power and is able to dominate) • It tends to be immigrant groups, or groups whose territory
has been conquered, who become minorities. They are different from dominant groups
culturally and often in appearance. The Social Construction of Sexuality Sexuality • • • •
Sexual behavior is complex influenced by biology, psychology, culture Sexual expression is
varied Sexual orientation ranges from exclusively homosexual to exclusively heterosexual,
with many in between these poles. (Kinsey 1948, Michael et al. 1994) “Have you had sex
with someone of the same gender?” (Michael et al. ’94) 8.00% 7.00% 6.00% 5.00% Women
Men 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% Past Year Since Puberty “Are you sexually attracted
to people of the same Gender?” (Michael et al. ’94) 7.00% 6.00% 5.00% 4.00% Women Men
3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% Yes Heterosexual hegemony Heteronormativity • “Hegemony”
is when an idea or norm dominates so heavily it is invisible and taken for granted as truth •
Heterosexual hegemony and Heteronormativity both mean: heterosexuality as the only
accepted norm & seen as natural • Heterosexism – prejudice and discrimination against
homosexuality • Inequality and Stratification DiscussionSince ancient times, same-sex
sexual relationships have not been uncommon. • Often not condemned & even encouraged
(e.g. Greece, Mexico both allowed for older males to have sex with younger males) • Not
defined as type of person, but an act Heterosexuality “invented” (socially constructed) in
late 19th century as a way of being or identity (see Katz article) • This created “dualistic”,
“essentialist” views of people as “hetero.” or “homosexual” • People now defined as one or
the other, and pushed to choose an identity • Defined heterosexuality as the norm &
naturalized it ◼Structural Functionalism (Macro level): ◼ Early approach that examines
functions performed by structures (systems) that ensure the groups’ survival. ◼ Sees
structures as interdependent and tending toward an equilibrium where they work well
together. ◼ E.g. family systems are influenced by economic systems ◼ Structures develop
based on consensus/agreement ◼ Sees rapid changes as disruptive to systems ◼Conflict
Theories (including feminism): (Macro) ◼ Sees conflict, rather than consensus as a basic
feature of societies ◼ Argues structures function to serve some groups’ interests more than
others ◼ (e.g. males benefit most by family & occupational roles) ◼ Some groups gain more
power & dominate and oppress others ◼ Change is not threatening, but often are correcting
of injustices ◼Symbolic Interactionist: (Micro level) ◼ People actively construct social
meaning & interactions involve a “negotiation of meaning” ◼ People act on the basis of
4. these meanings ◼ Structures are created by everyday interactions of people ◼Since
“Functionalists” look for the ways structures fulfill the needs of the entire society, the see
inequality as “functional” (or serving a purpose). ◼Functions of inequality: ◼ It motivates
people to strive and ensures all statuses that are “key” to survival get filled (e.g. physicians
are rewarded for training, talent, responsibility). ◼ The U.S. has a “meritocracy” or merit
system in which our incomes reflect our inputs to society. ◼ Since conflict theory looks for
ways structures function to benefit some more than others, they see much of our inequality
as unfair. ◼ They argue we do not have a perfect meritocracy in the U.S. ◼ Some are
wealthy through inheritance, or through jobs that are not highly “key” to our survival
(football star) ◼ Wealthy young people have advantages ◼ Those born into poorer families
face barriers to achievement ◼ E.g. less well funded public schools, fewer resources of
various sorts (food, health care, role models) ◼ So, our merits alone do not determine our
reward ◼ Inequality exists because some can gain an advantage and create a system that
privileges themselves. “Historical Materialism” involves the following assertion: The
economic system (how production occurs) is the substructure (or infrastructure) of
societies, and this influences all other aspects of societies (superstructure), including
cultural values, political systems, etc.) In capitalist systems (which are those with private
property and markets of supply and demand controlling prices and wages) conflict is driven
by two classes with different interests: Bourgeoisie = owners of the means of production
(the capitalist class) Proletariat = workers who own nothing, but sell their labor (the
industrial working class) Surplus value of labor – workers produce more value than what
they are paid – enough to support themselves and the capitalists. Capitalists not only take a
salary (often VERY large) but additional profits are distributed to stock holders. It is an
exploitive relationship. Alienation is workers estranged from their work process, from the
product of their labor, from society at large. Occurs with worker’s lack of control &
ownership Capitalism (a free market system) has inherent contradictions (such as
producing alienated workers) that will lead to its demise and replacement with socialism
and finally, communism. Power struggles between classes produce social change. Workers
often develop a “false consciousness” (where they don’t see the source of their oppression)
rather than “class consciousness” ◼ Class = “a social category sharing a common set of
subjectively salient attributes within a class system. ◼ Inequality and Stratification
DiscussionOur class location determines our rights and powers over the production
process. ◼ Class conflict is influenced by the distributions of buying power & income
(market capacity) and control over labor effort. Capitalists have control over their own
labor and that of others. ◼ Exploitation requires labor efforts of the exploited, so capitalists
must elicit cooperation of the proletariat. ◼ An intersectional approach transforms how we
see inequalities ◼ Intersectional approaches grew out of social justice movements (Dill et
al.) ◼ They find statuses like gender and race are experienced as simultaneous rather than
as two separate, additive influences on ones’ life. ◼ An intersectional approach exercises
the following 4 “theoretical interventions” (meaning new approaches): ◼ Placing lived
experiences of all groups at the center ◼ Exploring the complexity of multiple identities ◼
Unveiling how domains of power influence inequality ◼ Linking research and practice to
promote social justice (Dill et al.) ◼ Inequality is organized and maintained through 4
5. domains of power (Dill et al.): ◼ Structural – institutional structures of resources ◼
Disciplinary – ideas and practices within organizations ◼ Hegemonic – ideologies &
representations that shape consciousness ◼ Interpersonal – patterns of interaction ◼
These 4 reflect both the macro and micro level ◼ They reflect both cultural representations
(beliefs and norms) and structural patterns (distributions of roles, resources, and
opportunities) Acker’s intersectional approach: ◼ Capitalism developed in a context of
racial and gender inequalities ◼ Racial and gender inequalities were reinforced through
social class systems (Acker) ◼ Through segregation of labor by race and gender ◼ White
males having access to best paid work. ◼ Through the separation of paid work from
“reproductive labor” in the home. ◼ Reproductive labor is all the life sustaining, caring
activities in the home (often unpaid, mostly invisible) ◼ Images of races and genders
contributed to their being seen as “suited” for different work (see also Glenn) ◼Rahman
examines the “gay Muslim” identity ◼ This identity represents the intersection of sexual
orientation and religion/ethnic identity. ◼ The existence of a “gay Muslim” challenges
simplistic views of both gays males, and of Muslims. ◼ This combination is seen as
impossible by many, given common representations of gays and of Muslims. ◼ Both gay and
Muslim identities are socially constructed ◼Annamma et al. examine the intersection of
race and dis/ability, proposing a “Discrit” theory (combining critical race studies with
dis/ability studies) ◼They focus on education, and argue that the way “special education” is
carried out reinforces racial hierarchies. ◼ Race and ethnicity influence whether one is seen
as disabled, how a student is taught, and their educational opportunities. …Inequality and
Stratification Discussion
