Collection of papers on english as a second language

Comprehensive Collection of Papers on English as a Second Language

Dr. Patricia A. Alvara

June, 2003

Table of Contents

QUESTION 1 3

Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research 5
Action Research 11
Case Studies 13
Experimental Designs 17
Surveys 20
The Crawford-slip Method 24
Cross-Impact Analysis 25
Scenario Planning 27
The Delphi Technique and Survey 29
Morphological Analysis 30
Trend Exploration 32
Conclusion 32
References 36

QUESTION 2 43

Funding Newcomers Programs 54
Federal Regulations 56
Additional Research 59
Exemplar Newcomers Programs 60
Kenosha Unified School District 66
Conclusion 71
References 74

QUESTION 3 80

The Bilingual Movement 80
Program Effectiveness 87
Conclusion 107
References 111

QUESTION 4 121

Standardized Assessments 122
Advantages and Limitations 124
Standardized Tests and LEP Students 126
LEP Students and Language Levels 133
Alternative/Authentic Assessments 138

Conclusion 143
Appendix A 146
References 147

QUESTION 5 152

Brain Research 153
The Brain and Language Acquisition 156
Classroom Instruction and Language Acquisition 161
SDAIE 177
CALLA 181
Conclusion 183
References 186

QUESTION 6 191

Technology-based Learning Inception 194
Internet/Intranet-based Training 196
Web/Computer-based Training 198
Technology-based Learning and Education 200
Technology-based Learning Effectiveness 202
Technology-based Learning Limitations 204
Conclusion 206
Model Course Rationale 209
Model Course Access 211
References 212

QUESTION 1

Compare action research, case studies, experimental designs, surveys, Crawford-slip method,
cross-impact analysis, scenario planning, Delphi techniques and surveys, morphological
analysis, and trend exploration, which have been used to evaluate the effectiveness of language
assistance programs during the last decade. What methodologies are most effective for
teachers’ usage? What methodologies might best be used for research in developing a
comparative analysis of effective Sheltered English programs?

Bilingual programs are currently being closely examined by many sectors of society, due

in large part to the criticisms being directed at them from the media and several influential

organizations. Effective bilingual programs require leadership to find answers to the calls for

greater accountability. Obtaining adequate research on bilingual and English as Second

language (ESL) educational programs has been a long, arduous process due to the vast

differences in these programs. Bilingual and ESL educational research is often skewed due to

the wide range of latitude among Federal requirements, which allow states to select the most

effective programs for their limited English proficient (LEP) student population. State officials,

educational agencies, and courts have further established mandated guidelines on educating,

governing, and managing LEP students. The actual programs being offered can vary from state

to state, district to district, school to school, and classroom to classroom (Amrein & Pena, 2000;

Hakuta, 2002).

While the efficacy of language programs remains a widely debated topic
in educational discourse, researchers agree that language programs do not
exist within a vacuum, and that the benefits accrued by participating in
these programs are likely to differ for individual students. (Amrein &
Pena, 2000, p.2)

Comprehensive Paper for (Patricia A. Alvara) 4

Educational researchers, linguists, and bilingual educators such as Cummins (1999), Freeman

(1996), and Hakuta (2002) have different perspectives on bilingual programs and their

effectiveness. Bilingual research is often tainted with program bias; this bias depends on the

program of preference and study (Amrein & Pena, 2000).

Limited English Proficient (LEP) is the legal term used to identify students who were not

born in the United States, or whose native language is not English, and those students who

cannot participate effectively in regular classrooms because they lack fluency in spoken and

written English (Department of Education-OCR, 1999). LEP is the term recognized by the

Office of Civil Rights (OCR), and the term used throughout this comprehensive paper to refer to

these students (Department of Education-OCR, 1999). Bilingual is a generalized term that refers

to all programs other than English as a Second Language (ESL). In this paper, the term

bilingual includes all Language Assistance Programs (LAP) offered within the Kenosha Unified

School District: Dual Immersion, Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE), English as a Second

Language (ESL), and Sheltered English Immersion (SEI). Although ESL and SEI are not

commonly referred to as bilingual programs, they are the most commonly used methods of

instruction for LEP students nationwide.

“Bilingual education was initially implemented to address political, social, economical,

and educational injustices; it instead remains a powerful instrument of mainstreaming minority-

language students” (Akkari, 1998, p.1). These programs were created to address various issues

and to help bridge the educational gap. The definition of “bridging the achievement gap” in this

comprehensive paper refers to increasing LEP students’ achievement in English language

proficiency-orally, in reading, and in writing, so that these abilities are shown to be more


comparable to those of mainstreamed native English speaking students. Today, in virtually all

grade levels in all subjects, African American, Latino, and American Indian students perform far

behind others. As the Hispanic and LEP student populations continue to increase rapidly, the

achievement gap continues to widen; this gap is due to the complexity of the issues surrounding

these students. “The gaps are so pronounced that in 1996, several national tests found African-

American and Hispanic 12th graders scoring at roughly the same levels in reading and math as

white 8th graders” (Johnston & Viadero, 2002, pp. 18-19).

To clearly understand the future of bilingual education, researchers should examine the

current research and methodologies pertaining to SEI. Sheltered English Immersion can be

broken down into four types of programs: Submersion, ESL, Sheltered Immersion, and

Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE). Today, available research on Sheltered English

Immersion (SEI) is minimal; however, it is now beginning to surface due to the passage of new

laws in California, Arizona, and Massachusetts and with the federal "No Child Left Behind Act

of 2001.” These laws call for an organized effort to educate all children, regardless of their

ability to speak and understand English. Limited data on SEI are due to the restrictions and

limitations placed on these programs by the federal government, which has made it rather

difficult to implement SEI programs (Gersten, Taylor, Woodward, & Wite, 1997). Despite the

challenges, SEIs programs have become increasingly common in the United States, and

particularly in Canada, where the federal restrictions are absent (Gersten et al., 1997).

Multiple research methodologies have been utilized in bilingual education as tools to

understand this overwhelming process and even to bring about changes within the bilingual

education arena. In this realm of education, the pendulum continues to swing and is continually


being inundated with seemingly endless changes. The focus of this paper is to provide a brief

overview of the various types of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies that can be

used in the development of a comparative analysis which will determine the effectiveness of

Kenosha Unified School District’s SEI and Transitional Bilingual Educational programs (K-5) in

meeting its LEP students’ English language needs. More specifically, this paper will examine

action research, case studies, experimental designs, surveys, Crawford-slip method, cross-impact

analysis, scenario planning, Delphi techniques and surveys, morphological analysis, and trend

exploration as methods of identifying the District’s Language Assistance Programs’(LAP)

strengths and weaknesses.

Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative research incorporates a variety of methodologies that are often combined and/

or overlapped, as in action research and case studies. Qualitative research is usually contrasted

with quantitative research. The focus of qualitative research is not on numbers but on words and

observations; stories, visual portrayals, meaningful characterizations, interpretations, and other

expressive descriptions (Zikmund, 2000). Alternately, the purpose of quantitative research is to

determine the quantity or extent of some phenomenon in the form of numbers (Burnaford,

Fischer, & Hobson, 2001; Gall, Borg, Walter, & Gall, 1996; Kerlin, 1999; Mc Bride & Schostak,

2000; Meloy, 2002; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Analysis, 2003; The Qualitative Versus

Quantitative Debate, 2003).


Qualitative analysis is a process that is often the precursor to quantitative,
statistical work; a process to make the tacit underpinnings of an issue
explicit; a process you can use to deepen your understanding of complex
social and human factors that cannot be understood with numbers; a
process that helps you figure out what to count and what to measure.
(Kerlin, 1999 p. 1)

The focus of qualitative research is on words and observations, and may include

stories, visual portrayals, meaningful characterizations, interpretations, and other

expressive descriptions. Interviews are often used in qualitative research. Alternatively,

quantitative research is used to determine the extent of some phenomenon in the form of

numbers. Researchers Miles and Huberman, in Qualitative Data Analysis (2003), stated

the following:

Qualitative data involve words and quantitative data involve numbers;
there are some researchers who feel that one is better (or more scientific)
than the other. Another major difference between the two is that
qualitative research is inductive and quantitative research is deductive. In
qualitative research, a hypothesis is not needed to begin research.
However, all quantitative research requires a hypothesis before research
can begin. (p.1)

Qualitative research uses a combination of strategies to collect data: field observations,

focus groups, intensive interviews, and/or case studies. In a qualitative study, the researcher

conducts studies in the field, in natural surroundings, and tries to capture the normal flow of

events without trying to control extraneous variables. Theories emerge as part of the research

process, evolving from the data as they are collected (Burnaford et al., 2001; Gall et al., 1996;

Hill, 2000; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000; Meloy, 2002; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative

Debate, 2003; Wimmer & Dominick, 1994). The design of a study evolves during the research


and can often be adjusted or changed as it progresses, which is not a characteristic of quantitative

research. It may be an exploratory research study or a quantitative descriptive study. A

descriptive study seeks to answer those “what is?” or “what are?” questions, and data are

collected through numbers, words or both (Zikmund, 2000).

In quantitative research, researchers conduct experiments, classify data, and construct

more complex statistical analysis in an attempt to explain what was discovered; although, a

researcher may conduct non-controlled quantitative studies such as descriptive, correlational, ex

post facto, and evaluation. Findings are generalized to a larger population, and direct

comparisons are also made. This is one of the main disadvantages of using qualitative research;

the results are not often extended to wider populations with the same degree of certainty as in

quantitative analyses. The results of the research are not usually tested to determine if they are

statistically significant or due to chance (Burnaford et al., 2001; Gall et al., 1996; Kerlin, 1999;

Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000; Meloy, 2002; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Analysis, 2003;

The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Debate, 2003).

It could be argued that the quantitative researcher is more precise, but the
response would be that with people it is not possible to be so precise,
people change and the social situation is too complex for numerical
description…Quantitative research has a tendency to clarify where
clarification is not appropriate. (Mc Bride& Schostak, 2000, pp. 1-2)

Quantitative data can determine when students have achieved or failed a task, and they can

provide national ranking, percentiles, and allow researchers to conduct comparison analyses.

Nevertheless, they cannot provide the “total” picture of why a particular student has either

succeeded or failed (Burnaford et al., 2001; Gall et al., 1996; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000;


Meloy, 2002; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Analysis, 2003; The Qualitative Versus

Quantitative Debate, 2003).

Qualitative research has a phenomenological focus that can provide an enriched and

detailed description of the participants’ actions and/or viewpoints (Veronesi, 1997). Qualitative

research tends to incorporate a more humanistic approach. When conducting qualitative

research, one is often interested in determining the ‘whole’ picture; he/she is in search of

answering the “why” questions (Burnaford et al., 2001; Gall et al., 1996; Kerlin, 1999; Mc Bride

& Schostak, 2000; Meloy, 2002).

The role of the researcher is also different when comparing qualitative and quantitative

research. In quantitative research, the researcher neither participates in nor influences what is

being studied; thus, he/she examines the circumstances objectively. In some qualitative research,

the researcher may play a more subjective role and participate by being immersed in his/her

research. That is, the observer may be the teacher or the facilitator. This role is often the case

with when action research, case studies, and focus groups are used in educational research.

In qualitative research, we seek to minimize the impact of our
interventions, but also recognize that there are other ways in which we
intervene…. Yet, we can have a pretty good idea that these may be helpful
to us in certain situations. More importantly, we endeavor to ‘build
theory’ from the ground of experience or practice. For qualitative
researchers, the context in which practices takes place has important
bearing upon that practice and research should be rooted accordingly. (Mc
Bride & Schostak, 2000, p. 2)

Therefore, both qualitative and quantitative research studies are valuable in the field of

education. Both may be utilized to understand the effectiveness of the various programs in


place. In conducting a comparative analysis of Sheltered English Immersion programs,

researchers may select a multi-method or mixed methods methodology by collecting quantitative

and qualitative data to be better able to identify the “total” picture of the research problem. A

qualitative observation may be used to watch the teachers in action, while a quantitative survey

may be given to teachers to assess effectiveness. For the purpose of this comprehensive paper,

each type of assessment examined will be identified as qualitative, quantitative, or a combination

of both.

Action Research

Action research is a powerful qualitative research tool utilized in education. Educators

who use this method of research observe carefully and reflect systematically. Observational

techniques are used to improve their practice. Researchers then generate potential solutions to

original problems, implement a chosen intervention, assess the outcomes, and/or modify the

solution(s). Action implies the need for change and research implies a need to clarify or increase

understanding. Action research is an iterative research process in which the researcher develops

policy, brings about change, and/or promotes quality improvement within the educational realm.

This type of research is a cyclical process that allows educators to create projects within their

classrooms and modify them as needed (Burnaford et al., 2001; Knezevik, 2003; Mc Bride &

Schostak, 2000).

A group of English as Second Language (ESL) teachers may seek a collaborative change

and implement their research. The process may include a general plan of action needed for

implementation, the collection, and analysis of the data, and monitoring of these steps. The data


may be reported using a variety of methods including: direct observation, surveys, ethnographic

questionnaires, journals, or various other artifacts. Researchers must check for the validity of

their information, and determine whether the information gathered is transferable to the general

population, or if it is limited to the practices studied (its external reliability). In addition to

external reliability, researchers must examine the internal consistency of the methodology to

ensure that the research is free from bias and is ethical. In the area of data analysis, researchers

need to explain how data will be coded, will be identified, and/or determine how themes will be

tracked (Burnaford et al., 2001; Knezevik, 2003; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000).

A team, comprised of eleven teachers within the New York School District PS24/District

15, collaborated with the Development and Dissemination Schools Initiative to conduct action

research. The team investigated how to improve instruction and other services for its LEP

students by integrating its low-proficiency second language students into Interactive Read Aloud

activities. During its initial meetings, the team created and identified several possible

adjustments and described how it would begin to implement these strategies in its ESL

classrooms. The PS24 Action Research Team arrived at a consensus to implement six

instructional strategies. Each teacher chose one new strategy to use in his/her classroom. The

principal then assigned a team liaison to observe and support the teachers during the

implementation. Additionally, the teachers were expected to keep a response journal. The

teachers met twice a month, after school, to report their progress; they discussed reading

selections and reflected upon what was working or not working. During these meetings, they

also determined how they would display the data. They agreed to use a written response in the

form of journals to document their findings as a performance assessment. The final outcome of


their action research left teachers still pondering how to improve instruction for their LEP

students. The team discovered the strategies implemented in the classroom worked, but did not

meet the students' immediate instructional needs. They felt their time would have been better

spent researching and investigating the following: How do classroom teachers get their LEP

students to pass the state and district exams (D&D School Initiative, PS24, 2000)?

Out of the eight action research projects generated through the Development and

Dissemination Schools Initiative website, not one project generated nor documented extensive

conclusions to warrant policy or strategic changes. In conducting a comparative analysis of

Sheltered English Immersion programs, action research may be utilized to understand teachers’

perceptions and attitudes towards their LAPs' strengths and weaknesses. By collaborating,

teachers may be able to identify the critical areas that need to be addressed, create a plan,

implement the plan, and monitor it. Most importantly, the current research further speculates

that for action research to be an effective and valid model of research for LAP improvement

there must be a critical analysis of the full results. Otherwise, a project's reliability and validity

cannot be guaranteed (Burnaford et al., 2001 D&D School Initiative, PS24, 2000; Knezevik,

2003; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000). Careful planning and critical analysis of action research

may result in a practical application of policy and strategic changes. The research design must

be flexible enough to change directions or plan future research that addresses the needs of the

LEP student population.


Case Studies

Case studies are one of the most widely used forms of qualitative research in education.

“Researchers generally do case studies for one of three purposes: to produce detailed

descriptions of a phenomenon, to develop possible explanations of it, or to evaluate the

phenomenon” (Gall et al., 1996, p. 549). Robert Kirk and Jerome Miller define this type of

research as “watching people in their own territory and interacting” (cited in Gall et al., 1996, p.

547). Case studies often involve a scientific approach, in which a hypothesis is studied, as a

reaction to a perceived limitation of qualitative research.

Kimberly Hill (2000), author of Beyond the Numbers: A Case Study of the 1990 Census

Promotion Program and the Implications for Census 2000, stated that “Case studies are best

suited for ‘how’ and ‘why’ research questions, when the researcher has no control over

behavioral events and wants to focus on contemporary events” (p.1). These types of qualitative

studies can investigate any phenomenon that interests the researcher within the participant’s

natural setting; they are often conducted from the perspective of the participants. The

phenomenon under study can be identified as: a role, a process, an event, a concept, a person(s),

a program, and/or a curriculum (Gall et al., 1996; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000).

“In conducting case studies, researchers collect intensive data about a particular instance

of a phenomenon, and they seek to understand each instance on its own terms and in its own

context” (Gall et al., 1996, p. 541). According to these authors, case studies have four

characteristics:

(1) the study of phenomena by focusing on specific instances, that is, cases;
(2) an in-depth study of each case;


(3) the study of a phenomenon in its natural context; and
(4) the study of emic [participant’s viewpoint] perspective of case study
participants (p. 545).

In a case study, data are collected and analyzed. The data collected can be in any form

gathered over a given period of time and may include words, images, physical objects,

quantitative data, narratives and/or interview transcripts. Kimberly Hill (2000) explained that a

case study may use “as many data sources as possible to systematically investigate individuals,

groups, organizations, or events, and is the best method when a researcher seeks to understand or

explain a phenomenon” (p.1). The methodology employed to examine the data vary according to

the needs of the researcher. “Case study researchers might begin a case study with one method

of data collection and gradually add or shift to other methods. Use of multiple methods to collect

data…can enhance the validity of case study findings through triangulation” (Gall et al., 1996, p.

557).

Researchers conducting case studies could use descriptions and explanations to attempt to

build, describe, and conceptualize the phenomenon. Researchers may conduct a single–site

phenomenological case study by examining the attitudes and perceptions of an ESL teacher, his/

her LEP students, colleagues, and principal towards an integrated curriculum or thematic

teaching in an ESL classroom as a method of building LEP students’ academic content

knowledge. This single-site case study might examine the experiences, perceptions, and

interactions between the ESL teacher and his/her LEP students. The study may contribute to the

understanding of why ESL teachers should use integrated curriculum to build academic content

knowledge and may provide an in-depth analysis of how an ESL teacher would implement and

perceive teaching thematically. Data may be produced from interview transcripts, observations,


journal entries, language assessments, and other documents to monitor and track the progress of

the LEP students. Based on the data presented, researchers would search for themes and/or

patterns, which could be used to determine significant characteristics featured throughout the

case (Gall et al., 1996; Mc Bride & Schostak, 2000; Veronesi, 1997).

A good depiction will provide a thick description…statements re-create a
situation and as much of its context as possible, accompanied by the
meanings and intentions inherent in that situation. The term thick
description originated in anthropology and is referenced as a complete,
literal description of a cultural phenomenon. (Gall et al., 1996, p. 541)

Peter Veronesi (1997) conducted a case study called A Case Study of Alternative

Assessment: Student, Teacher, and Observer perceptions in a Ninth Grade Biology Classroom.

In his qualitative descriptive case study, he examined the perceptions of a veteran biology

teacher and his ninth grade biology students towards alternative science assessments strategies.

The methodology used was from a phenomenological perspective that described the experiences

of the participants within their own “complex, cultural setting” (p. 3). The purpose of the study

was to contribute to the understanding of implementing alternative science assessments by

providing an in-depth analysis of how the teacher implemented and perceived alternative

assessments. Data were derived from various sources such as interview transcripts, observations

and other artifacts.

Analysis of the data was not intended to support or refute claims made in
the name of alternative assessment. Rather, this study was intended to
provide a vivid description of the situation studies and delineate potential
implications for using alternative science assessments. (p. 2)


Veronesi’s use of descriptions allowed him to be an “outside” observer; his descriptions mirrored

those of the participants rather than the researcher. The results described in this case study were

not conclusive, nor were they ever compared to those of other science teachers and/or classes.

Experimental Designs

Experimental designs are the most powerful quantitative research method used in

education. This type of design is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships among two or

more variables. In order to be classified as an effective experiment, the research must be

conducted in a rigorous manner in which the researcher tries to control confounding factors that

threaten its internal and external validity. Controlled experiments in bilingual education are

almost impossible to conduct and often produce undesirable results (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992;

Ramirez, Ramey, & Yuen, 1991). LEP students are seldom placed randomly in their language

programs; all too often, these students have various language and academic abilities.

The attrition rate contributes to the ineffectiveness of controlled experiments (Amselle &

Chavez, 1997; Garcia, 2002; Kerper Mora, 2002; Meyers & Feinberg, 1992; Ramirez et al.,

1991). “Attrition rates are high due to academic and behavioral difficulties. By sixth grade 43%

to 68% of students transfer from the regular L1 [primary language] program. About 75% of

students who transfer out will repeat a grade” (Kerper Mora, 2002, p. 1). LEP students tend to

be transient; their high mobility rate may be due to the mere fact that LEP students are often

placed in bilingual classrooms until they reach a level of fluency; they are then reclassified or re-

designated and placed into a mainstreamed classroom (Garcia, 2002). Once LEP students are


reclassified or re-designated as fluent English proficient (FEP), school districts tend to halt the

monitoring process of their FEP students (Amselle & Chavez, 1997).

In bilingual education, researchers using experimental design will often disseminate a pre

and post language assessment and/or have a controlled group. Most often, this design method is

used for used by the researcher to draw a specific causal conclusion. “If one concludes that

when a school follows approach X to bilingual education, the performance and achievement of

students will be Y…that X causes Y” (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992, p.19). Interventions may or

may not be controlled by the researcher. A critical problem encountered when implementing this

type of research is determining whether a change in the post-test is due to the treatment and not

to extraneous variables. Confounding variables thus weaken the experiment (Gall et al., 1996;

Meyers & Fienberg, 1992; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Debate, 2003).

Quasi-experiments are very much like the true experiment with the exception of subject

assignment; they are used when the effects of the secondary variables are not known but are

assumed, such as the lack of random sampling in education because of legal and ethical issues

presented when working with students. That is, subjects have been found to be in certain groups

and are then studied; they are not assigned to different groups. Quasi-experiments use theory to

determine which factor needs to be ruled out as a possible alternative explanation for the effects

observed. The design allows for more causal inferences than uncontrolled qualitative

observational studies. Control is a critical factor in experimental design; experimental control

determines the quality of the experiment, and can have a direct impact on the conclusions.

Random assignment of treatments is used to control the validity of the study. In experimental

studies (true vs. quasi-), the researcher attempts to tightly control the internal validity to the


extent that he/she attempts to tightly control the circumstances of an experiment, thus limiting

the conditions to which he/she can generalize the study’s findings (Gall et al.,1996; Meyers &

Fienberg, 1992; The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Debate, 2003).

In 1990, the U.S. Department of Education commissioned the Governing Board of the

National Research Council to conduct a thorough investigative review of two major evaluation

studies of bilingual education. The project assignment was to review and assess the

methodologies of data collection and analysis of the study entitled, The National Longitudinal

Study of the Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Services for Language Minority Limited-English

Proficient Students (nicknamed "The Longitudinal Study"). In 1983, researchers were asked to

study the effectiveness of instruction for LEP students and compare the effectiveness of three

different instructional strategies in bilingual education. The three programs evaluated under the

study were immersion, early exit, and late exit programs (Cummins & Genzuk, 1991; Meyer &

Feinberg, 1992; Ramirez et al., 1991).

The study revealed that LEP students’ services were not evenly distributed

geographically across states and districts. LEP students tended to be classified as “at-risk” and

were from lower social economical backgrounds than monolingual students were. The results

indicated that LEP students performed below grade level as early as the first grade, yet in

Mathematics, their skills were superior. Most of the instruction was conducted in English or in a

combination of the LEP student’s primary language (L1) and English. Program entrance and

exit procedures were inconsistent among various school districts within the same state; there

were relatively no time limits on the amount of time a student could participate in bilingual

programs. Lack of qualified instructional staff was a critical problem as well (Cummins &


Genzuk, 1991; Meyer & Feinberg, 1992; Ramirez et al., 1991). The most significant result from

this study supporting SEI was that when a LEP student is ready to learn in English and

instruction is provided in English language arts, he/she showed greater achievement. The results

of the study also affirmed that LEP students receiving ESL services exited their programs at a

faster rate than those in primary language programs (Cummins & Genzuk, 1991; Meyer &

Feinberg, 1992; Ramirez et al., 1991).

The second study was entitled the Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion

Strategy, Early Exit, Late-Exit and Transitional Bilingual Programs (nicknamed The Immersion

Study) and Ramirez, Ramey, and Yuen (1991) conducted it. The study compared the

effectiveness of two alternative programs- Structured English Immersion and late-exit

Transitional Bilingual Education programs. The programs’ ultimate goal was to teach LEP

students English. The panel reviewing this study suggested that the Immersion Study contained

many biases. The comparison groups were not from the same social economical groups,

numerous parents received AFDC, and a marginal number received some form of preschool

education. The results of the study determined that the programs and students studied were not

comparable (Meyer & Feinberg, 1992; Porter, 2000; Ramirez et al., 1991).

One of the negative attributes addressed in this study was the high attrition rate of LEP

students. The high attrition rate is not new in the educational realm. This is a critical area that

needs to be addressed and is a major challenge to consider when conducting any type of study in

bilingual education. A percentage of LEP students left the study once they were reclassified as

Fluent English Proficient or FEP; however, some students left not being fully proficient and

others transferred to other classes, schools, states, or even countries. Nearly one-half of the


students left the study; therefore, the attrition rate was relatively high (Ramirez et al., 1991). No

further research was conducted to monitor the achievement of those LEP students who left the

programs (Meyer & Feinberg, 1992). Experimental design can be very rigorous and does show

promise for use by the Kenosha Unified School District to assess its Language Assistance

Programs utilized now and those of the future. Any proposed research study must be feasible,

affordable, and ethical.

Surveys

Surveys are one of the most frequently used methods of gathering data for research in

education. When used appropriately, surveys have many advantages. Surveys can play a

significant part in an organization’s comprehensive needs assessment by identifying areas for

improvement and issues that need to be explored. Surveys can be complex, time consuming and

expensive; yet, they allow one to gather critical data rapidly (Witkin & Altschuld; 1995).

Schools utilize surveys because they are relatively easy to administer; they can easily be

disseminated in a variety of settings, and they offer additional opportunities for gathering

relevant data. Surveys can be distributed in the classroom or sent home with students; they can

be returned in the same manner. Often, administrators will disseminate surveys to teachers,

parents, and students as an alternative method of gathering information about the strengths and

weaknesses of the school and/or a specific program (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Meyers &

Feinberg, 1992; Gall et al., 1996).


“When the purpose of a study is to provide a systematic description of a large number of

programs, institutions, or an individual, a case-study approach will simply not do… one way to

reach the generalization is through sample surveys” (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992, p. 22). Surveys

are a form of observational study in that they capture a collection of many cases (Witkin &

Altschuld, 1995). “Observational studies are most naturally suited to drawing descriptive

conclusions or statements about how groups differ” (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992, p. 25). In

observational studies, the researcher does not attempt to control the treatments but rather

observes the treatments in a natural setting, and this can be true of surveys. Surveys are analyzed

in a quantitative manner.

When constructing a survey, researchers must carefully plan some critical aspects of the

design before it can be considered valid. Researchers must consider the following: target

population, sampling, and method of distribution, questionnaire design, item content, item

format, scales, and data analysis (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992). Based on the consensus of the data

collected from the survey, the researcher is able to identify themes, trends or patterns and set his/

her research agenda as needed. Feedback is measured through computation of the central

tendency of these themes or patterns (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Fienberg & Meyers, 1992; Gall

et al., 1996).

One major drawback of implementing surveys as a mechanism for gathering data is that

they have become so commonplace. Often people will discard them without responding which

leads to a high attrition rate (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Gall et al., 1996; Meyers & Feinberg,

1992). Because of the high cost of conducting surveys, Kenosha Unified School District began

using enGauge, a web-based survey program, as a more effective way to survey its community


(staff, parents, and students). EnGauge (2000) was designed to help school districts plan and

evaluate their systemwide use of educational technology. Kenosha Unified hired enGauge to

survey its community to determine if its technology integration is currently functioning well

within the District. Data gathered will help the District to formulate its technology goals in order

to improve student learning (Kenosha Unified School District, 2003).

An example of a research study in which a survey was utilized as a viable method of

gathering information about the strengths and weaknesses of a specific program was illustrated

by a study conducted in Massachusetts (2000). The survey was used to study the participation in

and performance of Massachusetts’ LEP student population on the Massachusetts

Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS). This study was the first reliable study to be

conducted or published on LEP achievement in Massachusetts. In 1999, Massachusetts

mandated that all students educated in the United States for three years or more participate in the

MCAS assessment. This pioneer study compared LEP students’ achievement by district; it also

reported on LEP participation and achievement (Beals, Peladino & Porter, 2000).

The results of the survey concluded that the data collected by the Massachusetts

Department of Education were flawed, and the results were very difficult to interpret. The data

reported were said to be contradictory and inconsistent with the number of LEP students tested,

and further investigation was required in order to determine the accurate results. LEP students

who were in the United States less than three years were allowed to take their assessments in the

Spanish/English version in Mathematics and Science. Eligible LEP students did not participate

in the math and science portion of the assessments in more than half of the districts surveyed; in


other cases, no scores were recorded. The assessment forms were not even properly marked to

identify whether or not these students tested in English and/or in Spanish (Beals et al., 2000).

The results also indicated that Massachusetts’ schools must, in the future, analyze the

LEP student population in the area of participation and performance. The Massachusetts

Department of Education survey concluded that the department must do a better job at tracking

the progress of those school districts that have high academic performances and test

participation. The results also indicated a need to further conduct qualitative studies of

classrooms and observe those schools that have a higher participation in order to identify

effective instructional strategies. In this case, qualitative assessment preceded the quantitative

assessment (Beals et al., 2000). Surveys will continue to play an important role in educational

research. KUSD is expected to continue to use the software program enGauge to assess the

effectiveness of its educational programs.

The Crawford-slip Method

The Crawford-slip method is much like the nominal group technique (NGT) utilized in

education. It is a method utilized in strategic planning and is an effective way to establish

consensus on a specific topic or agenda from a group or committee desiring a way to gather

information on the future of educational institutions, educational programs, or policies

(Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Koalaty Kid, 2002). Educational institutions employ this type of

strategic planning in order to cope with a rapidly changing system. Due to the nature of changes

in bilingual education, the Crawford-slip method is a valid method of obtaining information.


This type of data collection is a group technique in that it is a highly structured method of

collecting data from a group or committee when the group has reached a consensus. The use of

groups to gather critical information is the most widely used method for gathering facts, opinions

and data needed for meeting an organization’s agenda. Groups are ideally comprised of six to

ten people such as key members of organizations, experts, members of the community and/or

parents. The purpose of these groups is to produce and prioritize a vast number of ideas

generated by the topic, allowing the researcher(s) to identify easily recurring trends. It can also

be used to brainstorm research ideas or as a tool in conducting a thorough needs assessment

(Altschuld & Witkin, 1995).

Utilizing the Crawford-slip method as a type of brainstorming process entails a group of

committee members responding to a question posed by the researcher(s). The questions are

usually determined by carefully examining internal and external features of the educational

organization. Rather than stating the groups’ ideas, members of a selected committee record

their thoughts on slips of paper or sticky notes. The slip of paper has neither a number nor a rank

recorded on it, and each idea is recorded on a separate piece of paper to facilitate analysis. The

final product reveals a common set of themes and/or patterns to further to be investigated

(Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Koalaty Kid, 2002).

The Kenosha Unified School District created a Five-Year Long Range Committee for its

Language Assistance Programs to explore the educational services offered to its LEP students.

Using the Crawford-Slip method, the committee brainstormed ideas on how the District can

begin to comply with the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) Compliance Action Plan, and how to

meet future needs of the District’s growing LEP student population. These processes led the


team members to explore further other research methods such as Cross-impact analysis and

scenario development in order to strategically plan for the future trends.

Cross –Impact Analysis

Cross-impact analysis attempts to reveal the conditional probability of an event, given

that various events have or have not occurred (Hackett, Morrison, & Teddlie, 1982). This

method allows researchers to build an understanding of the vast amounts of information gathered

and helps them analyze the trends and/or patterns that determine how they affect one another.

Using cross-impact analysis allows researchers to incorporate various trends or variables, both

qualitative, and quantitative in the analysis. This type of research relies on few assumptions and

is relatively easy to comprehend (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Cross Impact Matrix,

http:www.iit.edu; Hackett et al., 1982).

Cross-impact analysis may be conducted in four steps. First, the committee uses

brainstorming techniques to identify approximately twenty key concepts or themes that may

affect the future of an organization. Then the committee or facilitator places these trends or

themes in a matrix that is predetermined. Third, the matrix is then compared by each row entry

and column entry. Finally, the matrix is analyzed to determine new trends. When analyzing the

data, the committee and researchers investigate patterns or events that may affect areas positively

or negatively. This process should be conducted several times in order to assure its validity

(Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Cross Impact Matrix, http:www.iit.edu; Hackett et al., 1982).

Developing trends that will have a high probability of affecting the original concerns are singled


out. A cross-impact analysis may reveal future trends or themes. The limitation of using a

cross-impact analysis is that it may produce isolated themes or trends (Altschuld & Witkin,

1995; Cross Impact Matrix, 2002; Hackett et al., 1982).

In a study called Developing Public Education Policy through Policy Impact Analysis

(1982) the authors, Hackett, Morrison & Teddlie, attempted to illustrate how cross-impact

analyses can be developed to create or change policies to attain outcomes for the future of

education in Louisiana. This research was conducted with a four-step process: monitoring,

forecasting, goal setting and cross-impact (policy analysis) implementation. The created policies

were ranked to determine their impact. Those trends that were ranked as priorities were

implemented and evaluated. The process was repeated to further refine policies.

In the monitoring stage, the variables were determined and a database was created. In the

forecasting stage, exploratory techniques were used to analyze trends and themes. Qualitative

and quantitative techniques were used to gather information necessary during this stage. The

qualitative and quantitative data gathered were obtained from school enrollment forms and were

used to project enrollment trends. In the goal-setting stage, exploratory forecasting was

converted into desirable futures, which lead to the construction of new schools and

implementation of new programs. Matrices were created in the policy analysis and

implementation stage, thus allowing the local school boards to evaluate, implement new policies,

and/or change old policies (Hackett et al., 1982).


Scenario Planning

Scenario planning is both a qualitative and a quantitative approach that empowers

participants to break traditional barriers and stereotypes often found in research and creates an

organization’s vision in the future. Scenario planning originated nearly thirty years ago from

Royal Dutch Shell, a company that experienced tremendous success in foreseeing the Arab oil

embargo (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Katz, Genesee, Gottlieb, & Malone, 2001). Scenario

planning creates a vision that expresses a multifaceted perspective of complex events and

facilitates ongoing learning and strategic conversation, which supports effective growth and

change. “A good scenario planning project expands leaders; peripheral vision and forces them to

challenge their own assumptions” (College of Marian, 2002, p. 1). This methodology can be an

intellectually challenging exercise that promotes dialogue among colleagues who want to

collaborate to create a vision, an analysis, and/ or a plan of action that allows them to work more

effectively together (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Katz et al., 2001).

Scenario planning provides an opportunity for futuristic planning in and predicting

precisely how the future will play out. An excellent decision or strategy is one that plays out

well across several possible scenarios. These scenarios identify trends, which have an infinite

number of possibilities, or situations that may lead to attaining better decisions and/or outcomes.

“The careful analysis of a particular scenario often allows for a rich contextual picture of

surrounding of some activity or event of interest” (Meyers & Feinberg, 1992, p. 21). Once these

trends have been identified, quantitative data are analyzed to address various situations


portrayed, including social, economic, political and technological issues (Altschuld & Witkin,

1995; Katz et al., 2001).

Every field has its own pattern for these types of studies, and bilingual education is no

exception. Because the future of education is unpredictable, scenario planning provides an

alternative method to reach a qualitative research goal by providing a common vocabulary and

effective ways for communicating complex ideas and/or concepts. In education, it is utilized as a

way to define a vision statement, an instrument for instruction, and/or an assessment (Altschuld

& Witkin, 1995; Borjesson, 2002; College of Marin, 2002; Katz et al., 1997; Smith, 1996;

Wilkinson, 1998).

Kenosha Unified School District (2003) created its vision statement for its LAPs by

incorporating the Crawford-slip method and cross-impact analysis; this process led to scenario

planning. Themes or patterns that emerged from these sessions allowed the committee to

formulate a five-year action plan, and enabled the District to plan more effectively and adapt

more readily to what was actually happening within the District’s LAPs. The five-year plan

enabled the District to investigate areas needing improvement. The committee wanted to

anticipate what could happen in the future; as a result, it created proposals through scenarios to

test their resiliency. Members voted on the ranking of the scenarios and brainstormed tactics to

improve the programs. The committee suggested developing new programs to better serve its

LEP students as well as explore viable alternative program options (KUSD Five-Year Long

Range Committee, 2003).


The Delphi Technique and/or Survey

The Delphi technique and/or survey are common data collection tools suitable for

gathering pertinent data for a variety of dimensions in educational research. The Delphi

technique was developed in the 1950s by researchers from The Rand Corporation. “The Delphi

operates on the principle that several heads are better than one" (Ludwig, 1997, p. 1). The

Delphi technique and survey utilize a methodology that combines qualitative and quantitative

data to explore futuristic designs in order to make appropriate and reasonable changes within an

organization. The Delphi technique and survey are two different approaches to data collection.

In the 1980s, the Delphi technique continued to grow and was implemented in most

educational realms, particularly in the area of defining curriculum and instruction. The Delphi

technique is used repeatedly to seek answers to pertinent educational issues. The Delphi

technique is implemented within a group setting and the goal is to reach group consensus. The

researchers must determine the purpose of the Delphi Technique. They then identify the

participants or panel, which is typically comprised of fifteen to twenty participants but usually no

more than fifty. Then the researcher proceeds to contact participants. In this Delphi group

process, people provide written responses to questionnaires. Using the Delphi technique in

group settings requires many modifications and also requires the researcher to score and process

the results rapidly. It is not used as often as the mailed Delphi survey (Altschuld & Witkin,

1995; American Policy Organization, 2003; Ludwig, 1997; Rosenbaum, 1991).

The Delphi survey is a prediction tool that uses an iterative survey process over a

specific time frame (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; American Policy Organization, 2003; Ludwig,


1997). Like other data collection techniques, the Delphi survey has three steps: planning,

carrying out the survey, and following up with the data collected. In the planning stage of the

survey, the committee must repeatedly review and rate items; this is a unique feature of the

Delphi process, which makes it a complex design to implement. The survey is developed,

mailed, and the data are collected. After the data are collected, the researcher analyzes the data

or creates another survey based on the responses of the first survey; then a second survey is

mailed to participants. This cyclical process is repeated to determine the need for further data

collection. Based on the consensus of the data collected from the survey, the researcher is able

to identify themes, trends or patterns and set his/her research agenda as needed. Feedback is

measured through computation of the central tendency of these themes or patterns. In the

educational setting, a Delphi survey would be easy to administer (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995;

American Policy Organization, 2003; Ludwig, 1997; Rosenbbaum, 1991). The Kenosha Unified

School District’s KUSD Five-Year Long Range Committee (2003) is currently using the Delphi

survey process to request pertinent data from staff members to evaluate and improve its language

assistance programs.

Morphological Analysis

Morphological analysis is often used in conjunction with a relevance tree, which is an

analytic technique that allows one to subdivide trends into smaller topics. In education, it is used

to identify new program opportunities and involves the mapping of overall solutions and

constructing scenarios. This method is a systematic approach to seek structure out of current and


future states of a particular organization, creating new alternatives to bridge the gaps that are

present in the programs. By mapping the researcher’s perspective and future possibilities, a

formulation of the problem is created. The researcher defines and examines all the

characteristics of the problem. He/she proceeds to construct a multidimensional matrix that

combines patterns to illustrate the possible solutions. Based on the information gathered, an

evaluation of all possible outcomes is conducted and the researcher conducts an in-depth analysis

of the best possible solutions. The primary purpose of the morphological analysis is to organize

relevant information in an orderly way (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995; Gordon, & Raffensperger,

1973; Mind Tools, 2002).

Morphological analysis is also an identification process used in Applied Linguistics, in

which the researcher seeks to derive meaning of a word-stem from a full word; this is referred to

as the identification of syntactic of a stem of a word. To effectively utilize this form of analysis,

the researcher must be able to manipulate spelling rules for affixes. In the past fifteen years,

applied linguists have made further advances in the area of morphological analysis by bridging

the gap between real-life applications in natural language and processing through technology.

Because this is not a historical comparison analysis comparing various languages, there will be

no further inquiries into these types of methodologies (Gazdar, 1989).


Trend Exploration

Trend exploration is a method of determining alternative futuristic outcomes by graphing

extended data in relation to their influences on one another; it is often utilized in strategic

planning in conjunction with cross-impact analyses and scenario planning. The data gathered are

derived from existing historical documents readily available in which the researcher analyzes and

investigates historical trends or themes. He/she then proceeds to compare the historical data to

the organization’s concerns in order to interpret the information and draw conclusions. “In

education, there is a strong movement to use educational indicators and to link them in a way

that they show the complexity of schooling so that they can be used to form policy making”

(Altschuld & Witkin, 1995, p. 232). Trends are plotted and placed in a matrix where

assumptions can be illustrated to show underlying trends. If trends are evident, the researcher

then must evaluate the data to determine if there are enough historical data that may define this

trend. The researcher proceeds to plot the trend; this action is carried out with descriptive

statistics (Altschuld & Witkin, 1995).

Conclusion

Regardless of one’s opinion regarding bilingual education, clearly more research is

needed in this field. “Real studies are needed on the effectiveness of English language

instruction” (Porter, 1997, p.31). Linguistic experts contend that it is now time to begin to put


aside difference amongst LAPs (Amrein & Pena, 2000). Schools are continuously failing to

meet various LEP students’ academic needs. The previously discussed research methodologies

(qualitative and quantitative) provide school districts with sufficient ways to collect data in order

to determine the effectiveness of their language assistance programs. Districts are required to

take “appropriate action” to ensure their LEP students have equal access to the curriculum. The

programs must be based on “sound educational theory” and be adequately staffed. School

districts are mandated to evaluate their programs and to ensure that they are meeting the needs of

LEP students, while complying with federal mandates. However, the guidelines are minimal and

vague; districts are granted the freedom to adopt any evaluation approach.

Action research and case studies provide school districts and researchers a way to reflect

upon what is working within the schools and use data to implement changes that have been

proven effective in meeting the needs of LEP students. It can be a starting place to help

predetermine what changes need to take place immediately. School districts can use action

research and case studies as a way to examine effective teaching strategies and/or innovations in

bilingual education. Educators and researchers recognize the need to have an in-depth

understanding of the policies, programs, and practices that lead to successful innovations in

bilingual education. Further, they desire a greater understanding of how these innovations in

programs, policies, and practices are implemented in different school districts. Approaches to

reforming bilingual education in one school district may be very helpful to educators elsewhere

(Burnaford et al., 2001).

School districts and researchers must begin to conduct quantitative comparative

longitudinal studies within their schools. They need to conduct these studies by comparing the


language programs offered to its LEP students and evaluate the programs’ effectiveness.

Because the available research tends to compare school districts against school districts, and

programs against programs, it is often irrelevant due to the mere fact that each school district has

its own unique circumstances. One program is not the answer because every state and school

district has its own set of standards and benchmarks.

Language programs need to be analyzed on a case-by-case basis as their
success is largely affected by the context in which the language program is
developed. Further, researchers indicate that micro-level and macro-level
issues related to planning and implementation must be examined to
understand how the sociopolitical context of schools may favor or
impede…language programs’ success…. (Amrein & Pena, 2000 p. 2)

The National Research Council concluded after reviewing programs of the past 25 years, “There

is little evidence to support which program is best. The key issues are not finding a program that

works for ALL children and localities, but finding a set program that works for the community of

interest” (Crawford, 1997, pp. 27-28). A one-size-fits-all curriculum does not take into account

the variations of the LEP student population within a community; stipulating set conditions on

what programs to teach and what to implement disregards the individual needs of LEP students

such as age, maturity, language skills, previous home-country schooling, learning styles, and

other issues unique to LEP students. Through observational studies and quantitative analysis,

school districts can monitor their LEP students who have left the program, those who have been

re-designated as fluent English proficient, and those students who are refused services. This

information may lead to a better understanding of the education life of LEP students after they

are mainstreamed into general education classes (Legge, 1998).


Today, researchers are in agreement that the decision to implement which of type of

bilingual programs should be left up to the community, the parents of the LEP students, the

school districts, and the states to decide. Districts can use surveys, the Crawford-slip method,

cross-impact analysis, scenario planning, Delphi technique and/or survey, morphological

analysis, and trend exploration as methods of identifying their district’s language assistance

programs’ needs and to determine their programs’ individual strengths and weaknesses. These

processes will allow the educational community to share practices and to seek ways to improve

LEP students’ opportunities.

The trends developed from these qualitative and quantitative techniques allow the

researcher to emphasize what needs to be changed, while building on the experiences, insights,

and sound educational practices. By incorporating these research techniques, the researcher is

able to reflect upon the immediate needs of the community. Despite the outside educational

sources that may be plaguing our schools, every school district, school, administrator, teacher,

student, and parent must be held accountable for their LEP students’ progress. Districts who do

not evaluate their LAP’s are in direct violation of limited English proficient students’ civil rights

(Crawford, 1997, pps. 27-28). Not only is it the ethical thing to do, but it is also illegal not to

evaluate the programs and make appropriate changes. Only through evaluations can appropriate

changes can be instituted; this process will lead to a better education for all LEP students.


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QUESTION 2

Analyze how Newcomers programs are funded and supported (local, state and/or federal). What
theoretic constructs can be drawn from these funded programs in developing a Newcomer
Center Program for the Kenosha Unified School District?

Currently the United States population is estimated to be 287 million people, and foreign-

born immigrants represent over 10 % of the entire population (Krashen, 2001; World Population

Data Sheet, 2003). Forty percent of new immigrants are children; one out of five children in the

United States is either an immigrant or a child of immigrants (Viadero, 2000).

According to the American Civil Liberties Union, since the founding of
the United States, more than 55 million immigrants from every continent
have settled in the U.S. Indeed, with the exception of Native Americans,
everyone in the nation is either an immigrant, or the descendent of
voluntary or involuntary immigrants. (Pathways, Immigrant Education,
2002, p.1)

Within a decade, this student population has nearly doubled (Hakuta, 2001). In the

1990s, the number of children of immigrants exceeded 5 million, representing over 150 different

languages (Friedlander, 1991). The 5 most prominent language groups being serviced in U.S.

public schools are: Spanish (72.9%), Vietnamese (3.9%), Hmong (1.8%), Cantonese (1.7%) and

Cambodian (1.6%) (ELLKBase, 2002). Seventy-five percent of all immigrants and/or limited

English proficient (LEP) students come from highly impoverished areas (Hakuta, 2001).

Limited English Proficient (LEP) is the legal term used to identify students, who were not

born in the United States, or students whose native language is not English, and those students

who cannot participate effectively in regular classrooms because they lack fluency in spoken and

written English(Department of Education-OCR, 1999). LEP is the term recognized by the Office


of Civil Rights (OCR), and the term used throughout this comprehensive paper to refer to such

students (Department of Education-OCR, 1999). Non English Proficient (NEP) is the legal term

used to identify students who are recent arrivals (immigrant-status) and have been in the United

States less than one year. NEP students' native language is not English, and they cannot

participate effectively in regular classrooms because they lack fluency in spoken and written

English. NEP is the term recognized by the Office of Civil Rights (OCR), and the term used

throughout this comprehensive paper to refer to such students (Department of Education-OCR,

1999). Bilingual is a generalized term that refers to all programs other than English as a Second

Language (ESL). In this paper, the term bilingual includes all Language Assistance Programs

(LAP) offered within the Kenosha Unified School District, and unless otherwise stated, it

includes the following programs: Dual Immersion, Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE),

English as a Second Language (ESL), and Sheltered English Immersion (SEI). Although ESL

and SEI are not commonly referred to as bilingual programs, they are the most commonly used

methods of instruction for LEP students.

“Over the past two decades, America’s classrooms have undergone an unmistakable

metamorphosis” (Friedlander, 1991, p. 1). There is seldom a school district, whether rural or

urban, that has not been affected by this influx of newly arrived immigrant students (Crawford,

1997; Hakuta, 2001; Krashen, 2001). “More than 40% of LEP students in the United States are

enrolled in rural schools” (Berube, 2002, p. 1). Today, there are over 8.6 million children

enrolled in U.S. schools, and nearly 40 % require English language assistance, including the

following subgroups: 3.2 million students identified and/or classified as being LEP; 1.3 million

LEP students enrolled in state and local bilingual programs nationwide; and 900,000 LEP


students receiving language services funded by federal, state, and local bilingual education

programs and/or through Title VII funding (Krashen, 2001). Title VII helps to ensure that LEP

students have an equal opportunity to learn challenging content and high-level skills that are

expected of all students (Crawford, 1997). However, there remain over 640,000 LEP students

who are not being serviced through any type of language programs (Krashen, 2001).

Large states, such as California, Florida, Texas, and New York, have historically

absorbed the brunt of the immigration expansion. Smaller states, such as North Carolina, are

also experiencing tremendous growth (Berube, 2002). The LEP population of California

represents 50% of all LEP students in the United States (Hakuta, 2001). In 1980, the Los

Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) reported about 110,000 students with 87 different

languages, costing the district $46 million to educate. In two decades, that number increased to

over 1.4 million LEP students and/or NEP students reported by LAUSD (Hakuta, 2001).

Recently, New York City public schools enrolled more than 176,000 LEP students, of whom

90% were recent immigrants (Brown, 2000). In Princeton, New Jersey, 99 % of its newly

arrived immigrant students are Hispanics and come from agricultural backgrounds. In St. Louis,

Missouri and Des Moines, Iowa, school officials are enrolling immigrant LEP students from

countries as divergent as Vietnam, Iraq, Haiti, and Mexico. Many school districts are enrolling

students from Bosnia and Somalia who have never attended school before (Brown, 2000;

Crawford, 1997; Duignan, 2001; Hakuta, 1998, 2001; Legge, 2000; Midwest Equity Assistance

Center, 1997).

Hawaii’s public schools are experiencing an increase in the enrollment of
students from Micronesia. The latest data from the Hawaii Department of


Education’s (HIDOE’s) English for Second Language Learners (ESLL)
Program show that 13 % of the state’s total English as a Second Language
(ESL) student population, or 1,671 students, come from the Freely
Associated States (FAS): the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM –
Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap), the Republic of the Marshall Islands
(RMI), and the Republic of Palau (ROP). They represent a region that is
not well known but that is vastly diverse linguistically, culturally, and
geographically. (Heine, 2003, p. 1)

Wisconsin public schools have also experienced a drastic expansion of LEP students

(Pabst, 2001). As of 2001, Wisconsin public schools provided an education for over 27,000 LEP

students in 170 school districts, with Spanish and Hmong speakers accounting for the largest

number of new students (Wisconsin DPI, 2001). Milwaukee Public Schools, the largest school

district in the state, has had an increase of LEP students, while their monolingual student

population decreased (Pabst, 2001). In 2002-2003, Kenosha Unified School District, also known

as "the District", the third largest school district in Wisconsin, enrolled over 21,000 students.

The District’s LAPs consist of a Sheltered English Immersion (SEI) program (K-5), a pull-out

English as a Second Language (ESL) program (6-12), Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE)

program in K-12, and a Dual Immersion Program (Spanish/English) in K-5 (KUSD, 2003). The

District offered its LAP services to over 1,300 LEP students at all grade levels. Enrollment data

were retrieved from Wisconsin’s “Third Friday in September Enrollment Count.” As of March

2003, the District identified and assessed an additional 700+ LEP students due to the "No Child

Left Behind Act of 2001.” The District has continuously enrolled ten to fifteen new LEP

students per month (KUSD, 2003).

School districts, administrators, and teachers are facing a multitude of barriers when

dealing with this influx of immigrant NEP students, when compared to past immigrants, and are


struggling to meet their student population’s unique needs. “Every individual and new group of

immigrants bring with them their own sets of needs or priorities that must be taken into

consideration in a case-by-case manner by school districts, administrators and teachers”

(Friedlander, 1991, p. 3). Today, most of the nearly 27 million new immigrants come from Latin

America, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. Additionally, most of the newcomers speak

Spanish, but native speakers of many other languages, including Mandarin, Pilipino, Russian,

Haitian Creole, Polish, Punjabi, Vietnamese, Hmong, and Hindi, are also prevalent. In fact, over

half of the language programs enroll students from four or more different native language

backgrounds (Short, 1998).

This new wave of immigrant students is generally having a more difficult time adjusting

to regular school settings. Today’s new immigrants are coming from a variety of educational

realms. Some come from well-educated families with great expertise and knowledge, while

others come from areas where they received little to no educational support. A large percent of

these immigrants are from non-English speaking countries where access to formal education is

limited. Numerous newly arrived immigrant students are virtually illiterate and/or have received

less than their age-appropriate education in their native language (Friedlander, 1991).

Regardless of the conditions that brought them to this land, almost all
newcomers have in some way been affected by the immigrant experience.
Most of these young people have felt alienation, loneliness or an
undermining of their sense of self-confidence in the face of a strange new
world. (Friedlander, 1991, p. 3)

Many immigrants have never attended school in their home countries, and/or may have

had limited schooling that may have been interrupted by traumatic events in their lives.


Immigrants flee their countries for several reasons: religious/political conflicts, extreme poverty,

and/or lack of opportunity. Immigrant students may have experienced hardships that most

American students have never experienced and may bring unforeseen emotional "baggage" to the

classroom. This knowledge requires that the students' new home schools, administrators, and

teachers be equipped with additional resources to help their immigrant students overcome their

often horrific past experiences (The Midwest Equity Assistance Center, 1997; Viadero, 2000).

Meanwhile, other immigrant students may experience some difficulties in understanding the U.S.

grading system(s), social customs, and other complexities of the American school system. All

new immigrants experience some degree of "culture shock." Culture shock describes the anxiety

a person feels when he/she moves to a different place; the term expresses the lack of direction, or

feeling of not knowing “what” or “how” to do things in a new environment. Newcomer students

who experience culture shock may not know what is appropriate or inappropriate inside and

outside the classroom (Guipana, 1998).

Older NEP immigrant students at the middle and high school levels are experiencing

greater difficulty adjusting to U.S. public schools in comparison to elementary students

(Schwartz, 1996). Newcomer students at the secondary level range in age from ten to twenty-

two years and come from many language backgrounds (Short, 1998). They face greater

challenges when learning a second language due to neurological developmental periods, which

favor quick language acquisition by younger children (Schwartz, 1996). The older students are

expected to read and comprehend textbooks, and to learn complex subject matter that requires a

more sophisticated use of the English language (termed "academic English"). Further, they are


subjected to high stakes assessments, which can play a major role in determining graduation

completion requirements (Schwartz, 1996; Short, 1998).

Seldom do older immigrants with deficient academic preparation ever successfully

transition to fluent English proficiency; they most often remain several years below normal grade

levels, and/or drop out (Johnston & Viadero, 2002; Schwartz, 1996). “Achievement gaps are so

pronounced that in 1996, several national tests found Hispanic 12th graders scoring at roughly

the same levels in reading and math as white 8th graders” (Johnston & Viadero, 2002, pps.

18-19). This achievement gap will continue to widen as the LEP student population increases

because school districts continue to provide less language support and resources for these older

students (Schwartz, 1996). Some older NEP and/or LEP students are placed in watered down,

remedial classes, even if their education in their native language was superior. This practice

impedes academic growth and decreases NEP/LEP students’ chances to attend universities

(Schwartz, 1996). In KUSD’s Five-Year Long Range Committee’s Action Plan (2003), it listed

the lack of additional language support at the middle and high school levels as a major concern

for its LEP student population. Currently, the District only has one ESL teacher who services its

LEP students at each of the middle and high schools (KUSD, 2003).

Consider the following fictitious scenarios that describe the experiences of typical older

immigrant students entering U.S. public schools. Jose is a 14-year-old immigrant Spanish

speaker who has just arrived in New York City. Jose left his native country of Angola during a

time of war, where he witnessed the execution of his father, uncles, and two older brothers. Jose

has less than four years of formal education and lacks literacy skills in his native language.

Jose’s mother enrolls him in his local neighborhood public school, and he is placed in 9th grade

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