1. THE HISTORY OF CAMERAS AND PHOTORGAPHY See http://photography.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photographers/photography-timeline.html forinteractive slideshow on the history of photography THE HISTORY OF CAMERAS AND PHOTORGAPHY

3. Chinese and Greek philosophers describe the basic principles of optics and the camera.

4. 1664-1666

5. Isaac Newton discovers that white light is composed of different colors.

6. 1727

7. Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that silver nitrate darkened upon exposure to light.

8. 1794

9. First Panorama opens, the forerunner of the movie house invented by Robert Barker.

10. 1814

12. Louis Daguerre's first daguerreotype - the first image that was fixed and did not fade and needed under thirty minutes of light exposure.

13. 1840

14. First American patent issued in photography to Alexander Wolcott for his camera.

15. 1841

16. William Henry Talbot patents the Calotype process - the first negative-positive process making possible the first multiple copies.

17. 1843

18. First advertisement with a photograph made in Philadelphia.

19. 1851

20. Frederick Scott Archer invented the Collodion process - images required only two or three seconds of light exposure.

21. 1859

22. Panoramic camera patented - the Sutton.

24. Oliver Wendell Holmes invents stereoscope viewer.

25. 1865

26. Photographs and photographic negatives are added to protected works under copyright.

27. 1871

29. Reverend Hannibal Goodwin patents celluloid photographic film .

30. 1900

31. First mass-marketed camera—the Brownie.

32. 1913/1914

33. First 35mm still camera developed.

34. 1927

35. General Electric invents the modern flash bulb .

36. 1932

37. First light meter with photoelectric cell introduced.

38. 1935

39. Eastman Kodak markets Kodachrome film.

40. 1941

42. Oliver Wendell Holmes invents stereoscope viewer.

43. 1865

44. Photographs and photographic negatives are added to protected works under copyright.

45. 1871

46. Richard Leach Maddox invented the gelatin dry plate silver bromide process - negatives no longer had to be developed immediately

47. 1880

48. Eastman Dry Plate Company founded.

49. 1884

50. George Eastman invents flexible, paper-based photographic film.

51. 1888

52. Eastman patents Kodak roll-film camera.

54. George Eastman and Edwin Land inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.

55. 1978

56. Konica introduces first point-and-shoot, autofocus camera.

57. 1980

58. Sony demonstrates first consumer camcorder.

59. 1984

60. Canon demonstrates first digital electronic still camera.

61. 1985

62. Pixar introduces digital imaging processor.

63. 1990

65. Chester Carlson receives patent for electric photography (xerography).

66. 1948

67. Edwin Land markets the Polaroid camera.

68. 1954

69. Eastman Kodak introduces high speed Tri-X film.

70. 1960

71. EG&G develops extreme depth underwater camera for U.S. Navy.

72. 1963

73. Polaroid introduces instant color film.

74. 1968

75. Photograph of the Earth from the moon.

76. 1973

77. Polaroid introduces one-step instant photography with the SX-70 camera.

79. Niepce placed an engraving onto a metal plate coated in bitumen, and then exposed it to light. The shadowy areas of the engraving blocked light, but the whiter areas permitted light to react with the chemicals on the plate. When Niepce placed the metal plate in a solvent, gradually an image, until then invisible, appeared. However, Niepce's photograph required eight hours of light exposure to create and after appearing would soon fade away.

82. In 1839 after several years of experimentation and Niepce's death, Daguerre developed a more convenient and effective method of photography, naming it after himself - the daguerreotype.

83. Daguerre's process 'fixed' the images onto a sheet of silver-plated copper. He polished the silver and coated it in iodine, creating a surface that was sensitive to light. Then, he put the plate in a camera and exposed it for a few minutes. After the image was painted by light, Daguerre bathed the plate in a solution of silver chloride. This process created a lasting image, one that would not change if exposed to light.

84. In 1839, Daguerre and Niepce's son sold the rights for the daguerreotype to the French government and published a booklet describing the process. The daguerreotype gained popularity quickly; by 1850, there were over seventy daguerreotype studios in New York City alone.

87. Photography advanced considerably when sensitized materials could be coated on plate glass. However, wet plates had to be developed quickly before the emulsion dried. In the field this meant carrying along a portable darkroom.

90. The first flexible roll films, dating to 1889, were made of cellulose nitrate, which is chemically similar to guncotton. A nitrate-based film will deteriorate over time, releasing oxidants and acidic gasses. It is also highly flammable. Special storage for this film is required.

91. Nitrate film is historically important because it allowed for the development of roll films. The first flexible movie films measured 35-mm wide and came in long rolls on a spool. In the mid-1920s, using this technology, 35-mm roll film was developed for the camera. By the late 1920s, medium-format roll film was created. It measured six centimeters wide and had a paper backing making it easy to handle in daylight. This led to the development of the twin-lens-reflex camera in 1929. Nitrate film was produced in sheets (4 x 5-inches) ending the need for fragile glass plates

92. Triacetate film came later and was more stable, flexible, and fireproof. Most films produced up to the 1970s were based on this technology. Since the 1960s, polyester polymers have been used for gelatin base films. The plastic film base is far more stable than cellulose and is not a fire hazard.

93. Today, technology has produced film with T-grain emulsions. These films use light-sensitive silver halides (grains) that are T-shaped, thus rendering a much finer grain pattern. Films like this offer greater detail and higher resolution, meaning sharper images.

94. Film Speed (ISO) — An arbitrary number placed on film that tells how much light is needed to expose the film to the correct density. Generally, the lower the ISO number, the finer grained and slower a film. ISO means International Standards Organization. This term replaces the old ASA speed indicator. The slower the film, the more light is needed to expose it..

96. Traditionally, linen rag papers were used as the base for making photographic prints. Prints on this fiber-base paper coated with a gelatin emulsion are quite stable when properly processed. Their stability is enhanced if the print is toned with either sepia (brown tone) or selenium (light, silvery tone).

97. Paper will dry out and crack under poor archival conditions. Loss of the image can also be due to high humidity, but the real enemy of paper is chemical residue left by photographic fixer. In addition, contaminants in the water used for processing and washing can cause damage. If a print is not fully washed to remove all traces of fixer, the result will be discoloration and image loss.

98. Fixer (Hypo)—A chemical, sodium thiosulfate, used to remove residual silver halides (grain) from films and prints when processing them. Fixer "fixes" the remaining silver halides in place on either film or prints. Fixer is also called hypo.

99. The next innovation in photographic papers was resin-coating, or water-resistant paper. The idea is to use normal linen fiber-base paper and coat it with a plastic (polyethylene) material, making the paper water-resistant. The emulsion is placed on a plastic covered base paper. The problem with resin-coated papers is that the image rides on the plastic coating, and is susceptible to fading.

100. At first colour prints were not stable because organic dyes were used to make the colour image. The image would literally disappear from the film or paper base as the dyes deteriorate. Kodachrome, dating to the first third of the 20th century, was the first colour film to produce prints that could last half a century. Now, new techniques are creating permanent colour prints lasting 200 years or more. New printing methods using computer-generated digital images and highly stable pigments, offer permanency for colour photographs.

102. All camera technology is based on the law of optics first discovered by Aristotle. By the mid-1500s a sketching device for artists, the camera obscura (dark chamber) was common. The camera obscura was a lightproof box with a pinhole (later lens were used) on one side and a translucent screen on the other. This screen was used for tracing by the artists of the inverted image transmitted through the pinhole.

103. Around 1600, Della Porta reinvented the pinhole camera. Apparently he was the first European to publish any information on the pinhole camera and is sometimes incorrectly credited with its invention.

104. Johannes Kepler was the first person to coin the phrase Camera Obscura in 1604, and in 1609, Kepler further suggested the use of a lens to improve the image projected by a Camera Obscura.

105. Daguerreotype Cameras

106. The earliest cameras used in the daguerreotype process were made by opticians and instrument makers, or sometimes even by the photographers themselves. The most popular cameras utilized a sliding-box design. The lens was placed in the front box. A second, slightly smaller box, slid into the back of the larger box. The focus was controlled by sliding the rear box forward or backwards. A laterally reversed image would be obtained unless the camera was fitted with a mirror or prism to correct this effect. When the sensitized plate was placed in the camera, the lens cap would be removed to start the exposure.

111. EXEMPLAR PICTURES

112. EXEMPLAR PICTURES

114. It also changed what was considered private as photographs were used to record most aspects of life.

115. Photography changed what was seen as suitable to veiw and was deemed as proof of events, experience or state of mind.

116. Photographers spread out over the world and recorded all natural and manufactured events they could.

117. This enabled households to have their own collections: photo albums, scrapbooks and stereoscope cards

118. They were used to document travels by various artist and this showed people things they hadn't seen before

119. Photographs were used to political and economical advantages and they document major historical events.

121. The development of the 35-mm or “candid” camera made documentarians infinitely more mobile and less conspicuous

122. the manufacture of faster black-and-white film enabled people to work without a flash in situations with a minimum amount of light.

123. Colour film for transparencies (slides) was introduced in 1935 and colour negative film in 1942.

124. Portable lighting equipment was perfected, and in 1947

125. Polaroid Land cameras, were developed which could produce a positive print in seconds.

126. Large-circulation picture magazines developed, creating an outlet and a vast outlet for documentary work

127. Photography was used to document historical conflicts and were used in archives, new technology made it easier

129. Photographers began to break free of the oppressive strictures of the straight aesthetic and documentary modes of expression after museums and art schools embraced photography as an art form

130. Documentarians started probing into the social landscape,mirroring in their images the anxiety and alienation of urban life

131. The usage and types of personal forms of documantary photography increased

132. Photography has been merged with other forms of expression

133. More traditional forms of photography have been used to photograph non- traditional subjects.

134. In the 1990s the first fully integrated photographic system was developed, aimed at the amateur photographer, the Advanced Photo System (APS). The new system had a magnetic coating that enabled the camera, film, and photofinishing equipment to communicate. The were self-loading, could be switched among three different formats (classic, or 4 by 6 in.; hi vision, or 4 by 7 in.; and panoramic, or 4 by 11.5 in.), and are fully automatic (auto-focus, auto-exposure—“point-and-shoot”). The film had a smaller size (24 mm) and had an improved polyester plastic base,two magnetic strips that record the exposure and framing parameters for each picture and allow the user to add a brief notation to each frame. The photofinishing equipment could read the magnetic data on the film and adjust the developing of each negative to compensate for the conditions. After being processed, the negatives are returned along with the photographs and an index sheet of thumbnail-size contact prints from which reprints and enlargements can be selected

136. Between 1850 and 1930 people used them to record events such as family occasions, historical events and points of interest for publications

137. Between 1940 and 1950 they began to be used for advertisement and propaganda due to world war two and it was used to make people join

138. 1960- photography became linked with the modelling industry

139. Photography is now used more widely and for various different reasons

141. To prove that photography was indeed an art, photographers at first imitated the painting of the time. Enormous popularity was achieved by such photographers as O. J. Rejlander and Henry Peach Robinson, who created sentimental genre scenes by printing from multiple negatives. Julia Margaret Cameron blurred her images to achieve a painterly softness of line, creating a series of remarkably powerful soft-focus portraits of her celebrated friends.

142. In opposition to the painterly aesthetic in photography was P. H. Emerson and other early advocates of what has since become known as “straight” photography. According to this approach the photographic image should not be tampered with or subjected to handwork or other affectations lest it lose its integrity. Emerson proposed this philosophy in his controversial and influential book, Naturalistic Photography (1889). Appropriately, Emerson was the first to recognize the importance of the work of Alfred Stieglitz, who battled for photography's place among the arts during the first part of the 20th cent.

143. in revolt against the entrenched imitation of genre painting known as “salon” photography, Stieglitz founded a movement which he called the Photo-Secession, related to the radical secession movements in painting. He initiated publication of a magazine, Camera Work (1903–17), which was a forum for the Photo-Secession and for enlightened opinion and critical thought in all the arts. It remains the most sumptuously and meticulously produced photographic quarterly in the history of the medium. In New York City, Stieglitz opened three galleries, the first (1908–17) called “291” (from its address at 291 Fifth Ave.), then the Intimate Gallery (1925–30), and An American Place (1930–46), where photographic work was hung beside contemporary, often controversial, work in other media.

145. The power of the photograph as record was demonstrated in the 19th cent., as when William H. Jackson's photographs of the Yellowstone area persuaded the U.S. Congress to set that territory aside as a national park. In the early 20th cent. photographers and journalists were beginning to use the medium to inform the public on crucial issues in order to generate social change.

146. Taking as their precedents the work of such men as Jackson and reporter Jacob Riis (whose photographs of New York City slums resulted in much-needed legislation), documentarians like Lewis Hine and James Van DerZee began to build a photographic tradition whose central concerns had little to do with the concept of art. The photojournalist sought to build, strengthen, or change public opinion by means of novel, often shocking images. The finished form of the documentary image was the inexpensive multiple, the magazine or newspaper reproduction. For a time the two traditions, art photography and documentary photography, appeared to be merged within the work of one man, Paul Strand. Strand's works combined a documentary concern with a lean, modernist vision related to the avant-garde art of Europe.

148. It has scientific applications which include aerial mapping and surveying, geology, reconnaissance, meteorology, archaeology, and anthropology.

149. New techniques such as holography,continue to expand the medium's technological and creative horizons.

150. In astronomy the charge coupled device (CCD) can detect and register even a single photon of light.

152. this created revolutionary changes in photography.

153. Digital technology allowed for a fundamental change in the nature of photographic technique.

154. Instead of light passing through a lens and striking emulsion on film, digital photography uses sensors and color filters. In one technique three filters are arranged in a mosaic pattern on top of the photosensitive layer. Each filter allows only one color (red, green, or blue) to pass through to the pixel beneath it. In the other technique, three separate photosensitive layers are embedded in silicon. Since silicon absorbs different colors at different depths, each layer allows a different color to pass through. When stacked together, a full color pixel results. In both techniques the photosensitive material converts images into a series of numbers that are then translated back into tonal values and printed. Using computers, various numbers can easily be changed, thus altering colors, rearranging pictorial elements, or combining photographs with other kinds of images.

155. Some digital cameras record directly onto computer disks or into a computer, where the images can be manipulated at will

159. 1842- The cyanotype process was discovered in 1842.

160. 1843- Botanist Anna Atkins made use of cyanotype photogram's to document her scientific research. Was the first illustrated book. Anna Atkins Photogram's can be used in numerous ways on many different surfaces

161. 1894- photogram's used in magazines

162. 1899- report on William FOX Talbot called him ' the father of photography'

163. 1921- Man Ray claims he invented the photogram after he emigrated from New York to Paris. In actual fact it existed from before but he justifiably developed it in the artistic sense.

164. 1922- Tristan Tzar called the photogram 'la photography a levers', reverses photography as it records the reverse side of the subject onto the photographic paper,