1. 1

2. 2
ABSTRACT
The political environment is closely implicated in all economics sectors and tourism is
immersed directly or indirectly in the economy of countries. Thus, this study represents
an opportunity to evaluate the political factors that influence tourism, especially in
Kenya in the first decade of the 21st
. century. To achieve this aim, this dissertation`s
approach is based on an evaluation of the relationship between tourism and politics. At
the same time it reflects the political factors involved in tourism such as the influence of
governments, the impact of policies and political instability in the tourism sector.
This study is based on meanings expressed through words. As a consequence of this, the
author did a qualitative analysis. This method analyses and focuses on the content of the
collected of primary and secondary data.
The primary data used helps to gather valid and reliable data in order to clarify the
political influence in tourism. The secondary data were utilized to find information to
solve, explain and to understand the research. In addition the triangulation method was
used. This model consists of a comparison of a variety of data sources both primary and
secondary, relating to the same event. All of this is in order to check on the
trustworthiness and comprehensiveness of the qualitative data.
The findings illustrate that tourism has gained more attention and participation by the
government of Kenya for its economic contribution. At the same time it reflects the
strong political influence by the government over tourism.
The Hall model will be employed to evaluate the policy-making process and the impact
of this on tourism. The analysis has been done in two different periods (2002-2007) and
(2008-2012), in order to identify the reliable problems in Kenya. In addition, Tourism is
a sensitive market due to unfortunate events such as the political instability experienced
in 2007. This has been an impediment to the development of full of the potential of
tourism in Kenya.
It is evident that the political environment affects tourism directly or indirectly. Based
on the decisions made it has a positive or negative effect on tourism. On the other hand,
as politics is a complex and extensive science, this research has served as a preliminary
study to future researches.

3. 3
Contents
CHAPTER I .........................................................................................................5
1. Introduction................................................................................................................5
1.1 Aims .......................................................................................................................5
1.2 Objectives...............................................................................................................5
1.3 Rationale.................................................................................................................6
1.4 Research structure ..................................................................................................7
CHAPTER II........................................................................................................8
2. Literature Review.......................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................8
2.2 Relationship between Tourism and Politics ...........................................................8
2.3 What is the role of the government in Tourism?..................................................10
2.4 Evaluating policies and decision making by Governments..................................12
2.5 Political instability................................................................................................17
2.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................19
CHAPTER III....................................................................................................20
3. Methodology ............................................................................................................20
3.1 Choice of research design.....................................................................................20
3.2 Justification...........................................................................................................20
3.3 Primary and Secondary data.................................................................................21
3.3.1 Primary Data.....................................................................................................21
3.3.2 Secondary Data.................................................................................................22
3.4 Data Analysis........................................................................................................23
3.4.1 Qualitative Method ...........................................................................................23
3.4.2 Triangulation Model .........................................................................................24
3.5 Procedure..............................................................................................................25
CHAPTER IV ................................................................................................... 27
4. Findings and analysis ...........................................................................................27
4.1 Kenya....................................................................................................................27
4.2 Politics, Government and tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years of the 21st
century
27
4.3 Evaluating policies and decision making .............................................................29
4.3.1 Tourism Policies in Kenya................................................................................29
4.3.2 Policy Demands (Period 2002 -2007)...............................................................30
4.3.3 Policy decisions ................................................................................................31
4.3.4 Policy Outputs...................................................................................................32
4.3.5 Policy Outcomes...............................................................................................33
4.4 Tourism policy in Kenya 2008-2012....................................................................35

4. 4
4.4.1 Policy demands.................................................................................................35
4.4.2 Policy decision..................................................................................................36
4.4.3 Policy Outputs...................................................................................................37
4.4.4 Policy Outcomes...............................................................................................38
4.5 To evaluate how influential political instability is on the tourism industry in
Kenya...............................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER V..........................................................................................43
5. Conclusion................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER VI ........................................................................................45
6. Recommendation......................................................................................................45
References ......................................................................................................................47
Annexes...........................................................................................................................55
Annex 1 ...........................................................................................................................55
Annex 2 ...........................................................................................................................57
Annex 3 ...........................................................................................................................59
List of abbreviations
EAC- East African Community
IP-ERS – Invest Program for Economic Recovery Strategy
KWS – Kenya Wildlife Service
TPU – Tourism Police Unit
TTCI – Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index
TTC – Travel and Tourism Caucus
USAID – United States Agency International Development
WTO – World Travel Organization
List of figures
Figure 1- Tourism benefits in the economies of countries……………………………. 7
Figure 2- Easton’s simplified model of the political system…………………………..13
Figure 3 - Elements in the tourism policy-making process……………………………14
Figure 4 - Research Characteristics……………………………………………………20
Figure 5 - Forms of interview………………………………………………………….22
Figure 6 - Tourism arrivals and earnings (2002 – 2007) ……………………………...34
Figure 7 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2002-2007)………...34
Figure 8 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2007-2010)………..39
Figure 9 – Tourist visitor arrivals in Kenya (2005 – 2010)…………………………...40
Figure 10 – Tourist arrivals by mode of transport (2005 – 2010) …………………....41
Figure 11 – Tourism earnings (Ksh in Billions; 2005 – 2010)………………………..41
Figure 12 – Foreign visitors / tourist number ‘000 (2001-2010)……………………...42
List of tables
Table 1 – Four components of the policy-making process……………………………14
Table 2 – Summary of the components of Chinese government policies………….....16
Table 3 - Types of Primary data………………………………………………………21

5. 5
CHAPTER I
1. Introduction
Tourism has been closely implicated in political action in recent years. This is because
tourism has been immersed directly or indirectly in the economy of countries. The
relationship between tourism and other sectors of economic activity has helped with the
passage of time to be considered as one of the major industries in the world (Burns and
Novelli, 2007).
The political dimensions of tourism are many; it is as a consequence of a powerful mix
of cultural, socioeconomic and political phenomena (Bauma, 2005 cited in Burns and
Novelli, 2007). Due to this, the tourism sector needs the participation of politics,
because governments are involved in political decisions concerned in improving and
creating an adequate environment to develop tourism (Laws, 1995).
Tourism then is an important part of the economy in any country; economics concern
decisions about scarce resources, whilst politics are concerned with making decisions
about public resources. It is thus evident that tourism is inherently related to politics
(Cook et al., 2010).
1.1 Aims
To evaluate, the political factors influencing tourism in Kenya in the first decade of the
21st century. Specifically, using the Hall (1994) method to evaluate the policy making,
focusing on an economic performance
1.2 Objectives
The research objectives address factors and elements of politics that influence tourism,
these objectives include the following:
 To understand the relationship between tourism and politics.
 To examine the position of the government in the tourism sector in Kenya.
 To analyze the tourism policy-making process and the economic impact of
tourism in Kenya.
 To evaluate how political instability influences tourism in Kenya.

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1.3 Rationale
Tourism is regarded as a highlight and an integral part of economies in many
developing countries; the benefits are present at both: macro (national level) or micro
(Local, regional), Dieke (2003).
Figure 1- Tourism benefits in the economies of countries.
Source: Adapt from Dieke, (2003, p.287).
Following on from this Cook et al. (2010) note that tourism invokes positive economic
benefits such as the following:
 It is an industry that helps to maintain economic stability in periods of recession
that affect virtually all industries.
 Tourism provides economic diversity, the variety of sectors involved in the
industry generate a wide range of different job opportunities.
 Tourism allows for support in the development of countries; this has a positive
impact on both visitors and communities.
Subsequently, Richter (1990, cited in Aquino, 2010, p.110) notes that the political
dimensions of tourism in some countries are viewed as a capitalist device with
governments willing to consider them in order to improve the economy.
Although politics include aspects of tourism linked with economic factors, it takes into
consideration the environment and local communities in order to develop the quality of
life for the people and to develop the economies of countries (Richter 1990, cited in
Aquino, 2010, p.108).
According to Koster (1984 cited in Lew et al., 2004, p.534),
“If a multidisciplinary tourism science develops without the necessary
ingredient of political analysis, it will remain imperfect and
incomplete.”

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However, politics in tourism is a relatively new area of scholarly inquiry; there is little
agreement on how public tourism policies should be studied or on the reasons
underpinning such studies. Nevertheless, studies of tourism policy must go beyond
describing “what governments do” (Hall & Jenkins, 1995, p.2).
According to Hall and Jenkins (1995, p.4) government activity in respect to tourism is
relatively recent in comparison with other traditional concerns of the government such
as economics, manufacturing and social welfare. Based on this, Hall and Jenkins
suggest that in governments there is an element of inexperience in the formulation and
implementation of tourism policies (ibid.).
For all of these reasons the researcher considers that this study represents an opportunity
to evaluate the political factors that influence tourism, especially in Kenya, where
tourism plays an important role in the economy of the country.
1.4 Research structure
Chapter II literature review
A theoretical analysis of the objectives is reviewed in this chapter in order to design
the research.
Chapter III Methodology and research design
This chapter explains systematically the method and the data collection used in the
research and gives an explanation of methods employed in the data analysis.
Chapter IV Findings and Analysis
The analysis has been carried out in order to reach the aim of this dissertation.
Chapter V Conclusion
Main remarks on the political factors influencing directly and indirectly in tourism
Kenya.
Chapter VI Recommendation
Suggestions for further studies.

8. 8
CHAPTER II
2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Tourism is an important factor in regional and national economies, in terms of
environmental issues and social effects. The political aspect however has rarely been
discussed in literature (Hall, 1994), yet the magnitude to which industry has become
widespread and is growing needs immediate attention as a subject of political research
(Richter, 1989). Following this Henderson (2003, p. 98) notes:
“Tourism is, without doubt, a highly political phenomenon which
extends beyond the sphere of formal government structures and
processes if politics are conceived as being essentially about power
relations, and it is thus an underlying and indirect theme in much
tourism research.”
It is immediately evident therefore that political factors in tourism are numerous. Hence
the aim of this literature review is to clarify and to describe in a theoretical manner, and
the factors relevant in this study such as:
 Relationship between tourism and politics.
 What the role of the government in the tourism sector is?
 Evaluating policies and decision making by governments.
 The political instability that has a direct and indirect effect on the tourism
industry.
2.2 Relationship between Tourism and Politics
Understanding the relationship between politics and tourism is especially significant for
developing countries, where the tourism industry plays an important role in the
economy (Kosters, 1984 cited in Chambers and Airey, 2001).
The study of politics in tourism does not nevertheless only concern elections, group
interests or political parties; it involves the study of power in all forms of society.
Laswell (1958 cited in Harrison, 2011, p.149) notes that politics is about power, “who

9. 9
gets what, when and how”, further adding a most limited definition of politics as “the
study of government and how individuals influence government actions” (Lasswell,
cited in Harrison, 2011, p.149).
Consequently, Hall (1994) suggests that the political system, directly or indirectly
influences tourism, through policies that are established by governments in order to
develop the country.
According to Edgell (1990, cited in Hall, 1994, p.2),
“The highest purpose of tourism policy is to integrate the economic,
political, cultural, and intellectual and economics benefits of tourism
cohesively with people, destinations and countries in order to improve
the global quality of life and provide a foundation of peace and
prosperity”.
Hall (1994, p.2) expresses the view that “tourism is not only the continuation of
politics” but it is an integral part of the world’s economy. In addition Magara (2010,
p.47), suggests that politics involves competing for power, authority and influence in
supporting the quality of life a society desires.
Politics therefore is an important factor in any market when it is developing, because
political decisions by the government in power affect the tourism industry as with any
other industry.
For instance, in Spain the tourism boom in the late 1950s was influenced by government
intervention, which provided and regulated tourism activity. The most important aspect
with regard to state intervention was the search for the growth of tourist activity and the
control over prices of accommodation (Apostolopoulos et al., 2001).
On the other hand, tourism in Asia is seen by government leaders as a political bridge
between nations, initiating or widening the scope of cooperative alliances with other
nations. Added to these, other important players involved in both politics and tourism
are international organizations and multinational corporations (airlines, hotels chains,
and tour companies), namely, those who drive the industry (Richter, 1989).

10. 10
Interests of groups however in the tourism industry generate a conflict in tourism policy
formulation, especially in environment and social issues (Craik, 1990 cited in Hall,
1994, p.70).
For instance, the influence of the United States Congressional Travel and Tourism
Caucus (TTC) on the American national tourism policy; the TTC provides a network for
the channelling of information from the tourism industry, political negotiations, and the
formation of compromises in legislative decision making, It also acts as a mechanism
for industry to influence policies which affect their interest (Hayes; 1981, cited in Hall,
1994, p.56).
Private industry in the tourism sector thus needs to be alert to changes of government, in
order to adapt to the new government, if it want to survive in the market. This means
adapting to the new strategies and being aware of possible changes of policies within
this industry (Pride et al., 2010).
Thus it is clear that politics and tourism share a wide range of factors such as social,
economic, political and cultural, in a country. It is therefore important to create a policy
for the environment propitious to the development of this productive sector of the
economy.
2.3 What is the role of the government in Tourism?
There is almost a universal acceptance by governments around the world, regardless of
ideology, that tourism is a good thing with most tourism policies designed to expand
tourism (Hall, 1994, p.29).
According to Elliot (1997), governments are involved in tourism because this sector
generates important benefits and help to boost the economies of countries. At the same
time, tourism economic activity is seen as a multiplier effect helping other sectors of the
economy.
For instance, Mak (2004) in the course of a study on Hawaii determined the multiplier
effect in the economy of this country and at the same time, noted that the impact of the
multiplier effect depends on how much the visitors spends. It is therefore evident that
the role of government in tourism involves being responsible for creating a propitious

11. 11
environment for visitors, in order to boost tourism and generate more revenue for the
economy of the country.
Similarly The United Kingdom’s House of Commons (1988, cited in Elliot, 1997,
p.29) notes,
“The government fully recognizes the great economic and
employment contribution and potential of tourism and seeks to
encourage the development, growth and international competitiveness
of the UK tourism industry”.
Certain authors (Lea, 1998; Pearce, 1989; Ritcher, 1989; cited in Hall, 1994, p.1)
express the view that in many modern governments tourism occupies an important role
in the economy, as it occurs in both developed and undeveloped countries.
For instance, The Kenyan government through President Mwai Kibaki (2010, cited in
African Review, 2010, p.1) recognizes the importance of tourism and notes the value of
supporting this industry, because it is helping to alleviate poverty and to create
employment and other opportunities for people in the country. Similarly, the Prime
Minister of the UK, David Cameron (2011, cited in Penrose, 2011, p.4) notes the
importance of tourism and saying,
“Our aim is clear, we want to take tourism in Britain to a whole new
level and harness the huge potential this area holds to grow our
economy”.
The United Kingdom government recognizes that it is necessary to focus on policy-
making in the tourism sector, because it considers tourism as a huge potential sector for
the growth of the economy in the country. Government strategy consists of improving
and creating infrastructure, promoting the country and eliminating barriers to the growth
of this sector, (Penrose, 2011).
According to Apostolopoulos, et al., (2001, p.34) tourism policies are established by
governments in three levels which are “central governments, autonomous government
and the municipal government”, in order to develop the tourism sector. For instance,

12. 12
“The UK government in the local government Act of 1948 gave local
governments the power to provide information and publicity for
tourism”, (Elliot, 1997, p.138).
Similarly, the federal government of Mexico, through an agreement with the State of
Oaxaca launched a plan (1997-2000) to secure substantial public and private sector
investment through a promotion program in infrastructure, conservation and culture. All
of these sought to develop that area of the country (Jeffries, 2001).
It is immediately evident therefore that “governments are the legitimate holders of
power in political systems”, (Elliot, 2001, p.38). In addition, Jeffries, (2001) notes that
governments are responsible for making policy and establishing policy guidelines,
within the constitutional, legal and political environment established by them.
On the other hand, Mill and Morrison (1985, cited in Hall, 1994, p.32) identifies five
roles of government vital for the success of the tourism industry: “coordination,
planning, legislation and regulation, entrepreneurship, and stimulation”. Further two
more roles were added by Hall (1994), one is related to social tourism and the other is in
the interest of protection.
According to Jeffries (2001, p.108)
“The great complexity of tourism, of the industry and of its products
calls for coordination and cooperation which arguably only
governments have the authority and apparatus to organize”.
Governments thus have the responsibility of ensuring synergy between different roles,
in order to aid the effective development of the tourism sector.
2.4 Evaluating policies and decision making by Governments
Policy making is a political activity that is embedded within the economic and social
characteristics of society. As such it reflects society’s values, ideologies, distribution of
power, institutions and decision-making (Hall and Jenkins, 2004 cited in Buhalis and
Costa, 2006, p.155).
Similarly, Elder and Etta (2005) suggest that policy-making is a political act and, as a
political act it requires extensive consultation, time and resources.

13. 13
Edgel, (1987) and Richter (1983 cited in Zang et al., 1998, p.2) however examine the
evolution of Chinese tourism policy, and found that it is not only important to
understand the design of the policy, but that it is necessary to take into consideration the
society and its administrative social environment.
Following this, Easton (1965) and Hall (1994 cited in Zang, et al., 1998, p.3) note that
the government’s role in tourism is an outcome of its tourism policy formulation and
implementations.
Mitchell (1989, cited in Hall, 2008) suggests that in policy-making two types of models
can be adopted, prescriptive and descriptive. Prescriptive models based on pre-
established standards seek to demonstrate how policy making should occur and
descriptive models descriptive models give an explanation of events occurred during the
decision making process. At the same time, descriptive models “document the way in
which the policy process actually occurs" (Hall, 2008, p.71). This represents a refutation
of the rational policy-administration dichotomy that characterises prescriptive
approaches to policy analysis, thus;
“Policy making typically involves a pattern of action over time and
involving many decisions”, (Anderson, 1975 cited in Hall, 1994,
p.48).
In accordance with Easton (1965 cited in Hall, 1994, p.49) in policy-making it is
important to consider the policy-process within a political system that it is operating in
political environment (see figure 2).
Figure 2- Easton’s simplified model of the political system
Source: Easton (1965 cited in Hall 1994, p.50).

14. 14
Following this, the model describes the four components in the policy-making process
(See table 1)
Table 1 – Four components of the policy-making process.
Source: adapted from Hall (1994, p.49)
Dahl (1970 cited in Elliot 1997) defines a political system as any persistent pattern of
human relationships that involves, to a significant extent, power, rule or authority.
Elliot (1997, p.40) adds,
“A political system can be liberal, democratic or totalitarian, but in
practice all types of governments have supported or sponsored
tourism”.
Elliot (1997) nevertheless notes that the ideology, beliefs and values of the political
system will determine how far governments will get involved in the economic system.
At the same time what will be the role of the private sector, and how much economic
support will be given to tourism needs to determined.
It is immediately evident that policy-making is established in a political arena, where
participants (interest groups, institutions, community and the institutional leadership)
can interact in determining tourism policy choices (Hall, 1994, p. 51). (See figure 3)

15. 15
Figure 3 - Elements in the tourism policy-making process
Source: Hall (1994, p.50)
Following this, Elder and Etta (2005) note that Policy-making is a long expensive
process requiring leadership, and it is commonly expected that government and
institutions will provide this leadership.
In addition, The Word Travel Organization (2011, p.5) notes that those responsible for
policy making are national legislators and government administrative officials, who
adopt policies and focus on aiding the growth of national economies, whilst at the same
time aiding and increasing the number of jobs available.
For instance, Zhang (1995 cited in Zhang et al. 1999, p.473) identifies that the nature of
tourism in China from 1978 to 1985 was a mix of politics and economics; as a
consequence tourism was viewed as an economic activity by the supreme leaders of the
government of China, "The Communist Party of China". This was evident in the
economic reform policy in 1978 (Zhang et al., 1999). (See table 2.)

16. 16
Table 2 – Summary of the components of Chinese government policies
Source: Zhang et al., (1999, p.474).

17. 17
The policies adopted by governments will determine the area and sector of the impact. It
could be economic, social or environmental. Simultaneously, it allows identifying the
power structures and actors behind the policy making (Dahll, 1961 cited in Thomas, and
Thomas, 2010, p.123).
Hall and Jenkins, (2004, cited in Anastasiadou, 2008, p.26), note,
“Policies are formulated and implemented in dynamic environments
where there is a complex pattern of decisions, actions, interactions,
reaction and feedback”
For instance, the introduction of the euro in January 2002 was anticipated as a great
opportunity for tourism. Conversion to the new currency however increased costs for
tourism enterprises and resulted in a loss of price competitiveness over non-EU
destinations, (Anastasiadou, 2008). Following this,
"The World Tourism Organization (WTO) reported that in 2004 the
more mature destinations in the euro-zone experienced a decline in
their market share and increased competition from non-euro
destinations in Europe such as North Africa (Morocco and Tunisia)
and the Middle East (Egypt)" (Anastasiadou, 2008, p.30)
The researcher notes that it is evident that policy- making in tourism has a widespread
effect on economic, social, environmental and political actions, in countries where these
have been applied. The development of policies for tourism, both short-term and long-
term, will however depend on the actors that are immersed in decision-making policies.
2.5 Political instability
Political instability refers to a situation in which conditions and mechanism of
governance and rule are challenged as to their political legitimacy by elements operating
from outside the normal operations of the political system (Hall, 2005, p.301).
Following this, Hall (2005) suggests that governments are stable when they are able to
adapt and satisfy the demands of the external elements within a political system. In
contrast when the governments are unable to satisfy the demands and to adapt to the
challenges of the external forces then political instability occurs. It is because external

18. 18
elements seek to satisfy their demands, outside of the political system in a non
legitimate manner. As a consequence, it gives rise to protests, violence and civil war.
In addition, Hall (2005) considers that political stability has been provided by different
types of governments such as socialist and communist. For instance, the Republic of
China is a communist system and it has been more stable than other communist regimes
in Eastern Europe (ibid.)
Although the duration of political violence may be short lived, the long term
implications for tourism can last for many years affecting the confidence not only of the
tourists, but also of potential investors in tourism. In contrast political stability is one of
the essential prerequisites for attracting tourists to a destination (Hall, 1994).
Hall (1994) adds that political stability is not only important to develop infrastructure,
but important to project an image of stability, and for this to be possible is necessary
for governments to invest in marketing campaigns and promotion in order to project the
country as a safe environment for tourists.
For instance, Mattila (1997, cited in Henderson, 2003, p.107) notes that due to
perceptions of “political risk and lack of investment security” in Myanmar it provoked a
strong aversion to this country by Asian leaders and investors.
Lea and Small (1988 cited in Hall, 1994, p.95) suggests however that political violence
can to be presented in different forms such as “wars, coups, terrorism, riots and strikes”.
According to Hall (1994) political violence can have an affect both directly and
indirectly on other economic sectors and on employment.
It is immediately evident that “tourists are highly sensitive to political instability which
could threaten their personal safety and security” (Sharpley et al., 1996 cited in Okech,
2010, p. 2). An insecure environment provokes a decrease in tourism; at the same time
it represents a hurdle to attract investments.
On the other hand, Governments have the responsibility to guarantee the continued
existence of the nation. To make this possible it is necessary for governments to develop
policy and control systems to support the tourism industry, in order to avoid a reduction
in tourist arrivals (Elliott, 1997).

19. 19
For instance in Fiji (1987) after the political turmoil, there was a decline in the number
of tourist arrivals. This continued until 1992 when the government accepted peace and
order, this was essential to attract and keep tourist and at the same time this brought
democracy and stability to the country (Elliott, 1997).
Alsarayreh et al., (2010) recognize that tourism is highly impacted on by political
instability such as civil wars, riots, coups and strikes. In addition, Ritcher, (1982; 1989);
Ritcher and Waugh, (1991 cited in Burns and Novelli, 2007, p.13) note that political
instability is one of the elements that destroys tourism in any country.
2.6 Conclusion
Tourism has gained more attention with the passage of time. The factors are multiple
but the most important one is its economic impact. Through politics people have
become more aware of this sector in both developed and undeveloped countries.
Although politics include factors of tourism linked with economic factors, the
environment and local communities are also taken into consideration in order to develop
the quality of life for people and to develop the economies of the countries.
On the other hand, tourism is viewed by governments as a facilitator of international
relations between countries.
It is evident that political influences on tourism occur through the government. because
it is government which has the power and responsibility of policy making whilst at the
same time establishing policy guidelines in order to create a correct environment to
attract tourists and investments, two essential elements in tourism.
On the other hand, tourism although it is a strong contributor in certain economies, is a
sector sensitive to internal and external hazards such as political instability, violence,
war, turmoil, and terrorism.
Following this, political instability destroys tourism, affecting directly or indirectly
other productive sectors linked with tourism, hence governments have a responsibility
to create a safe and healthy environment to attract tourism.

20. 20
CHAPTER III
3. Methodology
Methodology is a perspective for viewing "the empirical world", where the perspectives
are established by data and methods predicting a framework for understanding the
findings of the research (Blumer, 1969 cited in Baugh, 2006, p.1). On the other hand,
Baugh (2006, p.1) states that the term “methodology” has no uniform meaning and as a
consequence has infinite boundaries.
Based on all expressed before, the researcher in this chapter explains systematically the
methods used in the research, at the same time, this is justified in a theoretical analysis,
looking to clarify this research in a rational way.
3.1 Choice of research design
Ghauri and GrФnhaug, (2010), note that research is a process of planning, executing
and investigating in order to find answers to specific research questions. Similarly
Saunders et al., (2007, p.5) define research as something that people undertake in order
to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing knowledge. In addition, the
research has a number of characteristics (see figure 4).
Figure 4 - Research Characteristics.
Source: Adapted from Saunders (2008, p.5)
3.2 Justification
The type of approach used by the researcher in this dissertation has been determined by
the origin of the data. This can come in two forms, primary and secondary data. This
type of data helps the researcher to evaluate and analyze the data based on a logical
relation and not only in beliefs (Saunders, 2007).

21. 21
In addition, the researcher uses the data triangulation method in order to improve the
accuracy of judgments and thereby the results of this research. This is because in many
cases, one method alone cannot be enough to explain or describe an event, and a multi-
method approach is needed to get the whole truth (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).
Finally, to develop the triangulation method the researcher used both primary and
secondary data.
3.3 Primary and Secondary data
3.3.1 Primary Data
Primary sources refer to data that have been observed, experienced or recorded close to
the event to obtain the truth (Walliman, 2011). Following this, Walliman (2011) adds
that according to the method by which the data are collected, there are four types of
primary data (see table 3)
Table 3 - Types of Primary data
Source: adapted from Walliman (2011, p.70)
The choice of data collection will depend upon an overall judgement on which type of
data is needed for a particular research (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010). Consequently
Ghauri and GrФnhaug add that these are multiple methods of data collection such as
observation, experiment, interview, and surveys. This also includes documentary
sources such as reports, statistics, published and unpublished documents. The researcher
decides on the kind of data collection method to use (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).
Following this, the primary data method to collect information used by the researcher is
based on interviews, interviews can be formal, structured or informal and unstructured
(Saunders et al., 2007).

22. 22
On the other hand Healey, 1991; Healey and Rawilson, (1993; cited in Saunders et al.,
2007, p.312) suggest other types of interview, differentiating between the standardised
interview and the non standardised interview, but both help to gather valid and reliable
data relevant for the research.
The researcher decided to use unstructured interviews because they are more
exploratory. According to Saunders et al., (2007) this type of interview is informal and
it is generally used to explore in depth general areas in which the researcher is
interested (see figure 5).
Figure 5 - Forms of interview
Source: adapted from Saunders (2007, p.313)
Interviews are used to gather data, which are normally analysed qualitatively; the
researcher uses qualitative analysis.
3.3.2 Secondary Data
Secondary sources are written sources that interpret or record primary data, thus
primary data collected by someone may turn into secondary data for another (Walliman,
2011).
Secondary data help the researcher to find information, to solve, to explain and
understand the research, however the quality of the secondary data used in the research
will depend on the source, and the methods of presentation and qualification of the
writer of the research (Walliman, 2011, p.71).

23. 23
The type of secondary data sources are multiple such as books, professional journals,
magazines articles, online data sources, websites of firms, governments, semi-
governmental organizations, catalogues and information on the internet (Ghauri and
GrФnhaug, 2010, p.91)
This type of data has advantages and limitations; hence the researcher should be aware
of both (Kumar, 2008).
The researcher based on Ghauri and GrФnhaug, (2010) identified the most important
advantages of utilising secondary data and these are;
 To facilitate cross-cultural international research it is easier to obtain
information about countries through the international surveys carried out by
serious organisations such as World Bank and Euro Monitor.
 The majority of the data collected by international organisations and
governments are of high quality and are reliable. It is because the data are
collected by experts using rigorous methods.
 The secondary data helps in the verification of the process and provides
excellent historical data.
 Secondary research reduces cost and time for the researcher
 The secondary data also provides a comparison of instruments with which the
primary data are easily interpreted and understood.
As a result the secondary data help the researcher to evaluate the questions and helps to
proportionate answers to the aim of this study, (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).
3.4 Data Analysis
3.4.1 Qualitative Method
The methodology used by the researcher to achieve the aims for this study will be
qualitative methods, because this study is based on meanings expressed through words,
compilation of results in non-standardised data requiring classification into categories
and analysis conducted through the use of conceptualisation (Saunders et al,. 2007, p.
472).

24. 24
Qualitative data are attractive for many reasons: they are rich, full, earthly, holistic, and
real; they preserve chronological flow where that is important, and suffer minimally
from retrospective distortion; and they in principle, offer a far more precise way to
assess causality in organizational affairs than arcane efforts like cross-lagged
correlations (Miles, 1979, cited in Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010, p.106)
According to Walliman, (2011, p.73) qualitative data cannot be accurately measured
and are generally expressed in words. They consist essentially of human activities and
attributes such as ideas, customs, and beliefs. In addition, Walliman (2011) adds that the
data can be descriptive in character, this does not mean that they are less valuable than
quantitative data; in fact their richness and subtlety has led to great insights into human
society.
Similarly, Saunders et al., (2007) note that qualitative data have not been quantified.
Saunders adds that they are a product of a series of research strategies. It might be an
online questionnaire, an in depth interview or interview based on policy documents, all
of which serve to achieve the aim of the research.
This method analyses and focuses on the content of the collected primary and secondary
data. It makes a descriptive research of the current documents and more relevant issues.
Added analysis is concerned with the explanation of status of some events at a
particular time or its development over a period of time (Catane, 2002, p.37)
Qualitative data rely on human interpretation and evaluation and cannot be objectively
measured in a standard way (Walliman, 2011). It is therefore important for the
researcher to evaluate the qualitative data collected.
On the other hand, the researcher used the triangulation model, in order to check on the
trustworthiness and fullness of the qualitative data. This model was made possible by
consulting a variety of sources of data relating to the same event (Ghauri and
GrФnhaug, 2010).
3.4.2 Triangulation Model
Triangulation refers to the combination of methodologies in the study of the same event.
Through the triangulation model it is possible to improve the accuracy of judgments and
thereby results, because in many cases, one method alone cannot be enough to explain

25. 25
or describe an event, and a multi-method approach is needed to get the full picture
(Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010 p. 212). .
Similarly, Veal (2006, p. 107) suggests that often “triangulation” is claimed in a study
because there is more than one data source and / or analytical method is used to address
different aspects of the research question, or even different research questions. It is
however when the different data methods address the same question that true
triangulation can be said to have occurred.
To develop the triangulation method the researcher used both primary and secondary
data.
3.5 Procedure
The researcher used secondary data because this type of data provides a variety of
sources of information to analyze.
The researcher considers government plans as they are vital to the development of the
economy of any country. Government plans foreshadow a new policy and they help to
understand the role of the government. Sources used in this analysis are secondary data
concerned with government plans, namely The Second East African Community
Development Strategy (2001-2005), (2006-2010). This helps to compare the theory,
concepts and the importance of politics between nations. At the same time it enabled
the author to identify the role of tourism and how important it is for the economy. The
Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation Plan helped the
researcher to identify the position of tourism in the economy. The Ministry of Forestry
and Wildlife (2005 -2010) and (2008 – 2012), in both periods launched a Strategic Plan
in Kenya´s Wildlife Service; The Ministry of States for the development of northern
Kenya and other arid lands (2005); the National Vision and Plan Strategy (2005-2015),
helped to identify how important tourism is for the Kenyan government. The Ministry
of Tourism and Wildlife (2006) national tourism policy, Mid Term Plan (2008 – 2012)
and the last more ambitious Plan Vision 2030 launched in 2008. This helped to identify
the position of politics and tourism in the economy of Kenya in both the short and long
term.
Consequently, the researcher used information from Kenyas National Bureau of
Statistics (KNBS; 2001-2010). It enabled the author to obtain information on tourist

26. 26
arrivals to the country and to measure the impact in a period of time. Data monitor
(2012) country analysis identified the role of politics in Kenya. African Economic
Outlook (2007-2012) helped to analyse the political context in Kenya. Kenya country
report (2006) helped to identify the importance of the tourism sector in Kenya.
Finally, the researcher used web data documents, journals and online news provided by
the press room of Kenya Tourism Federation. It helped to analyze and contrast all the
information.
The primary data was gathered through non-standardised interviews. The first contact
was via telephone when an appointment was made with Mr. Githure Kamau
(Commercial and Technical Services Officer of the Embassy in Madrid). The interview
was carried out over several different sessions. The first session was face to face, it
helped to the author to understand the political environment in Kenya.
The second session was made via video conference; both sessions of the interview were
based on open ended questions in order to have in depth information about the role of
political factors in tourism in Kenya.
The other two interviews were made by telephone and video conference. The
interviewees were a former employee of the Embassy of Mexico and an employee of the
Embassy of Argentina: both embassies are located in Kenya. The objective of the
interviews was to gain the opinions of people who are in contact with the day to day
political reality of the country. This information has been contrasted with other
secondary data in order to clarify the aim of this research.
These interviews were based on a series of open ended questions that helped the
researcher to achieve the aim. Subsequently the interviews were transcribed by the
researcher in order contrast them with the other data collected. In addition, it helped to
elaborate the triangulation method in the next session (findings).
Finally, the primary and secondary research has been discussed with the literature
review theories (chapter 2) in order to provide sufficient knowledge for the researcher to
draw a conclusion and give recommendations at the end of this paper.

27. 27
CHAPTER IV
4. Findings and analysis
4.1 Kenya
Kenya is one of the leading tourist destinations in sub-Saharan Africa, (International
Monetary Fund, 2010, p.58), as a consequence of this, it is ranked 8th regionally. In
addition, Kenya is ranked 28th for its natural resources, with its two World Heritage
natural sites and its rich diversity of fauna. Tourism is a recognized priority within the
country (ranked 18th on this pillar), with high government spending on the sector and
effective destination marketing (World Economic Forum, 2011).
According to Data monitor (2012, p.23) tourism in Kenya represents one of the most
important productive sectors in the economy of the country. For instance tourism is one
of the largest foreign exchange earnings in the economy of Kenya.
In consequence of this economic importance, the tourism sector has gained more
attention and participation by the government (as discussed in the literature review).
To understand the political influence of tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years, it is
necessary to understand the relationship between politics, government and tourism and
to evaluate policy and decision making, and finally, how the political instability
influenced the tourism sector in 2007-2008.
4.2 Politics, Government and tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years
of the 21st
century
According to Richter (1990, cited in Aquino, 2010, p.110) the political dimensions of
tourism are viewed by governments as a capitalist device. Similarly in the opinion of
one of the interviewees, in Kenya tourism was viewed by the government as an
important contributor in the economy of the country. Nowadays, as a consequence of
this, tourism is given priority in the political agenda, (see annex 1).
Kenya in 2004 saw an increase in its GDP (4.3%) compared with 2003 when there was
only an increase of 2.8 %; therefore, tourism was one of the sectors that made a
significant contribution to the achievement of growth in the economy of 15.1%,

28. 28
followed by; transport and communications with a 9.7 % (International Monetary Fund,
2007b, p.6).
Rase (1984 cited in Bañon and Carrillo, 1997, p.2) notes that governments are
responsible for combining resource - political, human, financial and technological-and
transforming them into policies, plans, and services to address the problems of citizens;
meet their demands and ultimately achieve some social, political and economic
objectives (as seen previously in the literature review).
For instance, the government of Kenya (1998 - 2004) implemented several strategies to
boost, improve and diversify tourism products along its coastline. As a result of this
intervention by the government of Kenya, tourism along the coast experienced a
positive impact. It contributed between 52% and 68% of the total tourist earnings in
Kenya, (Government of Kenya, 2005 cited in Government of Kenya 2009, p.44).
Governments are viewed as political bridges between nations. This helps to improve
relations and make agreements between countries in order to develop tourism and
improve economies between them (Richter, 1989).
A Similar situation occurred in Kenya between 2001 and 2005 when the second
agreement called East African Community (EAC)1
development strategy was signed.
This strategy allowed for cooperation between the members of the public and the
private sector. This served to coordinate and to develop a strategic focus on promoting
the marketing of quality tourism (East African Community, 2011).
According to interview one, in Kenya it is easy to see the influence of the political
environment in tourism and other economic sectors. It is only necessary to compare the
government of Arap Moi (1978 – 2002) and the government of Mwai Kibaki (2002-
2012).The first government was authoritarian and the majority of its policies
implemented were short-term. In addition this period was one of chaos, corruption and
continued internal protest. These reasons slowed the development of tourism as in the
government of Mwai Kibaki (see annex 1).
1
The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation of the
Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of Rwanda and
Republic of Burundi with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania

29. 29
According to Lacey (2002) the government led by Mwai Kibaki (2002-2012) has
focused mainly on the fight against corruption; and socio-economic problems in order
to provide political stability and improve the economy of Kenya.
For instance, the Plan launched by the government of Kenya in 2003, called “Economic
Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation (2003-2007)” was one of the
most important, where tourism was seen as a productive sector by the government. This
was due to its high economic multiplier effect on other sectors such as transport,
entertainment, agriculture, trade and industry (Government of Kenya, 2003, p. 25)
According to interview Three, the government of Kenya plays an important role in
tourism through the ministry of tourism, which promotes this sector. The KTB (Kenya
Tourism Board) regulates this, via the catering and tourist development levy trustees. It
trains and educates service providers through the Kenya Uteri college and develops
tourism through the Kenya Tourism Development Corporation (see annex 3).
On the whole, governments have the power in the political systems and at the same time
governments are responsible for policy-making and establishing policy guide lines, (as
notes Jeffries (2001) in the literature review, p. 14).
4.3 Evaluating policies and decision making
4.3.1 Tourism Policies in Kenya
According to interview two, policy-making in Kenya is important because it allows an
evaluation of the reliable problems in the country. At the same time the process of
policy-making allows for room to learn of past errors in order to improve in the future.
In addition, the interviewed states that the Ministry of Tourism needs to coordinate with
other ministries in order to create policies that allow it to be seen as a competitive
tourism destination in Africa (see annex 2).
According to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife (2006, p.9) policy-making is
necessary to coordinate tourism, wild-life and land use policies. These factors are
crucial for consistency between tourism development and wildlife conservation, at the
same time it helps to minimise the human wildlife conflict. Additionally, the Ministry of
Tourism and Wildlife (2006 p.12) notes:

30. 30
“The overall aim of the national tourism policy is to ensure that
tourism retains its position as a leading export, and that it becomes a
major vehicle for job creation, poverty reduction and wealth creation
for Kenyans in the future. Its practices are closely harmonised with
key national policies and laws pertaining to wildlife conservation, land
ownership and physical planning”.
As a result, the researcher notes that in Kenya there is a strong political influence in
policy-making for tourism. For this reason it is necessary to evaluate the policy-making
process. To do so, the researcher used the Hall model (see literature review p.18). The
analysis in this research was done in two different periods, 2002-2007 and 2008- 2012.
4.3.2 Policy Demands (Period 2002 -2007)
Policy demands are actions that are arising from inside and outside the political system
(as was stated in the literature review - table 1).
For this reason, the researcher identifies and summarizes the policy demands for
tourism in Kenya, based on the National Plan, economic recovery strategy for wealth
and employment creation 2003 to 2007, (Government of Kenya, 2003); Impact of
tourism on the environment in Kenya, Status and Policy (Ikiara and Okech, 2002); the
second East African Community (EAC) development strategy 2001 to 2005.
Following this, the coast of Kenya is the region most popular for tourism products, as a
consequence of this; there is an imbalance of investment compared with other regions,
signifying that the majority of tourism is concentrated along the coast and islands. This
provoked environmental problems due an uncoordinated development and tourism
activity on coastlines; trail degradation and deforestation in the highlands and disruption
of the normal behaviour of wildlife (Ikiara and Okech, 2002, p.20).
Subsequently, because of the concentration of tourism in certain areas and traditional
tourism products it has been necessary to diversify the tourism sector; hence it is
necessary to create new tourism niches such as sports, cultural tourism and events
(Government of Kenya, 2003, p.42).

31. 31
The centralization of power linked with the authoritarianism of the last regime created
an environment of political instability, projecting an image of an unsafe place (Otieno,
2008, p.7). A similar opinion is given in interview one (see annex 1).
Simultaneously, the lack of promotion and marketing in both national and international
market has been a negative factor in boosting the growth of the tourism sector,
(Government of Kenya, 2003). In addition, because of conflicts involving the
community, wildlife and tourism, it has been necessary for the government to create a
plan, which involves all of them (Government of Kenya, 2003).
The population and housing census (1999), states that the population of Kenya in the
coast has grown by 54% since 1989. It represented 8 % of the national population in
1999. Its uncontrolled and unplanned population growth, linked with lack training in
themes of tourism, especially in the conservation of fauna and wildlife has provoked a
distortion in the natural environment and disrupted local communities and wildlife
(Government of Kenya, 2009).
The construction of structures of inappropriate design and size, linked with an
uncoordinated developed planning has affected the local landscape, (Ikiara and Okech,
2002).
The researcher notes that policy demands in this period were based on the weakness of
the country. The major weaknesses related with tourism in this period were social,
environmental, educational, insecurity, lack of coordination, planning and a poor image
of the country.
4.3.3 Policy decisions
The researcher identified the policy-decisions made by the government, based on the
National Plan for the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment
Creation 2003 to 2007 (Government of Kenya, 2003). Following this, the government
re-launched Kenya as a global tourism destination building a new image of Kenya, to
restore the image caused by political instability and terrorist attack2
whilst the last
government was in power.
2
On August 7, 1998, Kenya’s tourism sector suffered a terrorist attack against the U.S.
embassy in Nairobi, when 213 people where killed, 12 of who were U.S. citizens. (Dagne. 2002)

32. 32
Subsequently, as tourism was focused on traditional markets, the Ministry of Planning
and National Development (2003) decided to diversify and improve tourism products,
with this it sought to boost and improve tourism and create more employees in all
regions.
The government of Kenya to satisfy the demand for security updated the Tourist Police
Unit (TPU). The TPU was upgraded and widely spread to other regions in the country.
With this action the government wanted to project Kenya as a secure environment
(Government of Kenya, 2003).
At the same time the government of Kenya decided to ensure that the standards of
tourism products were maintained through regular inspections; improving the regulation
in this sector; licensing; the regulation of Hotels or other accommodation and
proportionate refurbishment of facilities.
Local Communities were involved in the plan launched by the government in order to
satisfy the demands. At the same time the government coordinated private and public
education programmes, all of which were oriented towards developing sustainable
tourism.
4.3.4 Policy Outputs
Policy outputs are what the system does (see table 1). Following this the researcher
noted that policy-outputs proving the action of the government, agree with policy-
decisions of the past. The government during the period 2002-2007, reinforced security
in the main tourist resorts through the operation of a TPU; it strengthened airport
security and created an Anti-Terrorist Police Unit (International Monetary Fund, 2007a,
p.39)
Subsequently, the government launched a major aggressive marketing and promotional
campaigns to rebuild tourism. The programmes included participation in international,
regional travel fairs and exhibitions, in order to project a new image of Kenya
(International Monetary Fund, 2007a).
At the same time, the government of Kenya launched the Emergency Market Recovery
Programme and Marketing campaigns in the Far East (China, Japan and Thailand). This
allowed for the opening of a marketing office in Hong-Kong, in order to boost tourism.

33. 33
In addition, the Ministry of Tourism of Kenya and China signed an agreement called
"Approved Destination Status"(International Monetary Fund, 2007a, p.39). It allowed
for an open skies policy between China and Kenya.
During the financial year 2004- 2005, the tourism sector continued to implement some
of the activities commenced in 2003-2004 and identified more activities in pursuit of the
“Investment Program for Economic Recovery Strategy (IP-ERS)” Republic of Kenya
(International Monetary Fund, 2007b, p.36).
In 2005-2006, an advanced scheme Plan for Conservation Policy and Wildlife was
under review, in order to have sufficient time to prepare a document that will help with
conservation of the environment and wildlife.
Finally, although tourism has been able to implement most of the activities identified in
the IP-ERS, some are yet to be planned for.
The researcher identified the policy-outputs based on: Kenya: Poverty Reduction
Strategy, Annual Progress Report 2003 - 2004 (International monetary Fund, 2007a)
and Kenya and Poverty Reduction Strategy Annual Progress Report 2004 - 2005
(International monetary Fund, 2007b).
4.3.5 Policy Outcomes
The researcher notes that the policy-outputs are positives and negatives for tourism,
such as:
The tourism Recovery Programme which started in 2003 had positive results, as
international arrivals rose by an average of 12.5 % annually, from about 1 million in
2002 to about 1.8 million in 2007. Domestic tourism registered a remarkable growth
from 656,100 bed nights in 2002, to 1,869,800 bed nights in 2007 (see figure 6).

34. 34
Figure 6 - Tourism arrivals and earnings (2002 – 2007)
Tourism arrivals and earnings, 2002 -2007
YEAR
Holiday/
Business
Visitors ('000)
Visitors
on transit
('000)
Other
visitors
('000)
Total international
tourist arrivals
('000)
Bed nights by
residents of
Kenya ('000)
Earnings
(Kshs
Billion)
2002 819,0 163,3 189,9 1001,3 656,1 21,7
2003 866,1 219,0 61,0 1146,1 738,7 25,8
2004 1132,0 162,2 66,5 1360,7 1190,3 39,2
2005 1269,2 79,8 130,0 1479,0 1129,6 48,9
2006 1313,6 137,2 149,8 1600,5 1374,8 56,2
2007 1520,7 130,9 165,2 1816,8 1869,8 65,4
Source: International Monetary Fund (2010, p. 59)
According to the International Monetary Fund (2010, p.58) the sector was a leading
foreign exchange earner, generating about Kshs 65.4 billion in 2007, up from Kshs 21.7
billion in 2002. In addition, Tourism and Travel in 2006 represented 11.4 % of the total
GDP, creating 556 thousand employees (World Economic Forum, 2007, p.238)
The diversification, marketing and promotion of tourism in Kenya had positive impacts.
Local conferences increased from 805 in 2003 to 912 in 2004 and international
conference tourism increased from 126 conferences in 2003 to 145 in 2004
(International Monetary Fund, 2007b, p.36). In addition, during 2003 to 2007 there was
an increase in the number of visitors to game parks and reserves (see figure 7)
Figure 7 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2003-2007)
Source: Adapted from Kenya Open Data, (2011)

35. 35
The relationship between China and Kenya allowed for the signing of the most
important agreement for Kenya. It involved developing the road infrastructure to help
tourism in terms of accessibility. In addition in May 2004, China designated Kenya as
“an approved tourist destination,” thereby opening new markets (Chege, 2008, p.34).
In contrast in 2004, the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) was accused of mismanagement
and failure to respect and respond to the interests of local communities in the face of
wildlife hazards (Kabiri, 2010, p.426). In addition, the growth of tourism is connected
with the establishment of protected natural areas. It has created conflicts in local
communities3
and disconformities with the government (Stavenhagen, 2006, cited in
Kabiri, 2010, p.427).
According to Obwocha (2007, p.5) the implementation of policies of the
National Plan (2003 – 2007), has been successful in the tourism sector.
4.4 Tourism policy in Kenya 2008-2012
The government in this period has been characterized by a long term-vision; it has
become the reference point for all government policy activities. The long-term vision
includes the more ambitious plan of Kenya - Vision 2030. It comprises three key pillars:
Economic, Social, and Political (Ministry of Tourism, 2008, p.1).
Vision 2030 contains various medium term “five-year” plans, the first Strategic plan
2008-2012, another five-year plan will be produced to cover the period 2012 to 2017,
and so on until 2030 (Ministry of Tourism, 2008). The researcher will be analyzing the
first period (2008-2012).
4.4.1 Policy demands
According to interview two, tourism policy in Kenya is dynamic, but it still has
potential for improvement, provided the government identifies the weakness of tourism.
At the same time, the Ministry of Tourism suggests that both local and foreign tourists
are catered for in the policy drawn up by the government, (see annex 2).
3
In Maasai Mara, the construction of a private tourist resort reportedly associated with top
government officials has involved fencing off an area traditionally belonging to the Sekenani
village, leading to the” loss of access to one of the only three sources of water for everyday
human and cattle consumption” (Stavenhagen, 2006 cited in Kabiri, 2010, p.427)

36. 36
The policy demands are based on the weaknesses of the last period (2002 – 2007),
following which the government of Kenya identified that there was an inadequate hotel-
bed capacity. As a consequence of an increase in tourist arrivals registered, it was not
accompanied by a corresponding investment in tourist accommodation (International
Monetary Fund, 2010).
Although advances were made in security, political instability and insecurity, were
present at the end of the period 2002 to 2007, (see more in the next section - political
instability).
According to interview one, tourism is a sensitive service sector in Kenya, where the
main attractions are based on natural resources, land, water, wildlife, fauna, and air
resources, (see annex 1). It was therefore necessary to diversify, in order to continue to
develop new tourism niches. This diversification is essential to develop tourism and to
avoid the effect of seasonality (International Monetary Fund, 2010).
Following this, Thaxton (2007) states that Kenya is home to 35,000 unknown species of
flora and fauna, and only thirteen percent of Kenya’ surface is currently in protected
areas.
Finally, the government needs to create policies in order to solve the conflict between
wildlife and humans. It is a consequence of human encroachment into migration routes
and the use of protected areas such as grazing areas by pastoralists.
The researcher formulated the policy-demands based on the Strategic National Plan
2008-2012, Poverty Reduction Strategy 2010 and KWS Strategic Plan 2008-2012.
4.4.2 Policy decision
The researcher determined the policy decisions that will be based on the Strategic Plan
2008-2012, launched by the government of Kenya in 2008.
The government of Kenya recognizes that security and political stability are important
for attracting tourists. It became more aware of this after the political instability
experienced in 2007 (see more in political instability, p.52). The government thus
considered it of some importance to train TPU and KWS rangers, while at the same
time, enhancing the capacity of crisis management centres and coordinating the
management of beach activities.

37. 37
The government of Kenya formulated a recovery strategy based on marketing and
promotion, in order to remedy the damage caused to the tourism sector by the violence
of post election. For instance, the premier parks initiative will involve branding of the
most popular parks with the aim of offering a high quality experience at premium rates.
Subsequently, due to the importance of tourism in Kenya, the government decided to
maintain internationally accepted standards of tourist service; to develop new products
and diversify source markets. At the same time, it decided to develop three Resort cities
– Isiolo, Diani and Kilifi to be constructed between 2011-2012, in order to alleviate the
hotel occupancy, (International Monetary Fund, 2010).
Finally, the government established the maintenance of wildlife and biodiversity, in
order to ensure continuity of viable ecosystems and capacity building for natural
resource management.
4.4.3 Policy Outputs
The researcher formulated the policy outputs based on the First Medium Term Plan,
2008 – 2012 (International Monetary Fund, 2010) and the First Medium Term Plan was
updated, Vision 2030 (Ministry of State for Planning and National Development, 2011).
Although the government’s term in office has is not finished, the researcher identified
and summarized what the government did in terms of tourism.
As the growth in tourist arrivals in the last few years (2005 to 2007 – see in figure 9)
has been important for the economy, the government implemented the First National
Spatial Plan of Integrated Transport Master Plan (2009-2010). It was implemented to
develop the infrastructure.
For instance, the national road safety programme is being implemented; the integrated
national transport policy was presented to Cabinet and approved.
In addition, the government of Kenya is developing of a new transport corridor to
southern Sudan and Ethiopia, fast tracking the implementation of the national road
safety action plan. It helps to boost the domestic and regional tourism; at the same time
the government looks to improve the quality of life of the people.

38. 38
The government started the modernization of Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, at
the same time. Improvement of Kisumu International Airport, Wilson Airports and the
rehabilitation of 10 air strips across the country is in progress. In addition, concept
papers for the three resort cities at Diani/Ukunda, Kilifi and Isiolo were finalized.
In terms of security it has to improve: from 2010 to 2011 in the MTP 20,000 police staff
housing units4
were constructed.
Finally, an aggressive advertising of Kenyan products and Media Campaigns were
launched both locally and internationally. All of this was to promote Kenya as a safe
tourism destination (International Monetary Fund, 2010, p.60).
4.4.4 Policy Outcomes
The researcher notes that it is possible to do an analysis of the impact of the policies on
the government 2008 - 2011 because the government has everything planned and works
with objectives.
The formulation of the policies is based on the same secondary data mentioned in the
policy-output and it consists of:
International arrivals peaked at 1.8 million in 2007; however, the sector was severely
impacted on by the post election violence resulting in a steep decline in international
arrivals to 1.2 million in 2008. Since then, the sector has been on a steady recovery
(Ministry of State for Planning and National Development, 2011, p. 7).
Strategic intervention was made in tourism, internal security and policy covering the
entire nation, enhancing regional integration and social equity.
The number of visitors increased after the violence of 2007. The research suggests that
it was as consequence of the policies adopted by the government. For instance, the
policies implemented by the government which relate to game parks have allowed
growth in this sector of tourism (see figure 8).
4
In terms of security 1,615 units for the Kenya Police and 1,478 units for the Administration
Police were created.

39. 39
Figure 8 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2007-2010)
Source: Adapted from Kenya open data 2012.
During the financial year 2009 to 2010 the sector continued to intensify environmental
conservation and management, to ensure a clean and secure environment for sustainable
economic growth.
This meant there was a negative impact on the population of most wildlife species. They
declined due to severe drought conditions during the period under review; forest
plantation stocks also decreased from 114.0 thousand hectares in 2008 to 107.0
thousand hectares in 2009, mainly as a result of high planting failures and fire damage.
4.5 To evaluate how influential political instability is on the tourism
industry in Kenya.
In December, 2007 Kenya was involved in political instability, as a consequence of the
dissatisfaction with the result of the elections, which meant a second term for Mwai
Kibaki, who belongs to the Party of National Unity (PNU). (Africa Report, 2008)
The opposition party Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), supported by its leader
Raila Odinga was dissatisfied with the results and made accusation of fraud in the
process of the election. As a consequence of this, violence occurred between the parties
(ODM and PNU). People on the streets were involved in protests, theft and
confrontations with the police, projecting a bad image of Kenya around the world.
(Africa Report, 2008)
“Political instability and political violence can impact on tourism, the
effects of political violence can be both direct and incidental, and may

40. 40
have repercussions far beyond the immediate location in which the
violence occurs. By driving tourists away political instability can have
major effects on the economy and on employment” (Hall, 1994, p.60)
According to interview two the post election violence in 2007 was harmful to Kenya.
After the episodes of violence erupted in Kenya, various countries offered travel advice
to their citizens. This meant that tourists cancelled their travel bookings to Kenya. This
provoked losses in the tourism sector, especially in the hotel industry. Now that the
political situation has improved and the new policies are implemented, the government
has created confidence in international tourism and the number of tourist has increased.
Similarly, Mkhabela (2011, p.5) stated that the political violence experienced during the
elections of 2007 forced many countries to advise their citizens not to have their
vacations in Kenya. It was due to gross insecurity.
Data from the Ministry of Tourism of Kenya (2008) show that tourist arrivals
experienced a decrease of 34% compared with 2007. This was a consequence of the
violence experienced in December, 2007. (see figure 9)
Figure 9 – Tourist visitor arrivals in Kenya (2005 - 2010)
Source: Adapted from: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics data (2012)
The researcher based on data from the Ministry of tourism in Kenya (2012) suggests
that the airline companies were affected more than other types of transport. In 2008 Air-

41. 41
transport suffered a decrease of 32 % compared with 2007, the date when political
instability occurred. (see figure 10)
Figure 10 – Tourist arrivals by mode of transport (2005 – 2010)
Source: Adapted from data of Ministry of Tourism Kenya (2012)
In 2008 repercussions from the political instability was reflected from an economic
aspect. Tourism earnings decreased by 19% in 2008 in comparison with 2007. (See in
figure 11)
Figure 11 – Tourism earnings (Ksh. in Billions; 2005 – 2010)
Source: Adapted from Ministry of Tourism (2012)
According to Interview one, political instability greatly affects tourism in Kenya. It is
widely accepted that it is the key impediment to the realization of its full potential.

42. 42
Following the post-electoral violence in the disputed 2007 elections, tourism revenues
dropped significantly. It is widely accepted that elections have created a cyclical effect
on tourism revenues.
Similarly, the Embassy of Kenya in Germany (2011, p.1) states,
“The security and safety of tourists is a priority responsibility of the
government. Security is a key consideration while selecting a holiday
or travel destination. The Government of Kenya is thus committed to
ensuring the security and safety of all visitors, citizens and residents”
On the other hand, in order to understand the influence of politics on tourism, it is
important to give a short comparison between the Arap Moi government and the Mwai
kibaki government. The Arap Moi government was characterised by a lack of the
formulation of policies, corruption, political instability, an authoritarian government,
and the lowest growth of tourism as mentioned in the analysis before. The Mwai kibaki
government was characterized by formulation of policies in order to recover the
economy and the image of the country in order to attract more visitors (see figure 12).
Figure 12 – Number of visitor arrivals in Kenya - ‘000 - (2001-2010)
Source: East African Community Statistic Database (2012)
In conclusion in both periods (2002-2007) and (2008 -2012) of the new government
lead by Mwai Kibaki, tourism acquired more importance. It was taken into
consideration as a productive sector, in order to recover the economy of the country,
fight against socio economic problems and create a safer political environment.

43. 43
CHAPTER V
5. Conclusion
The researcher notes that the relationship between Politics and tourism has acquired
more importance in the 21st
century in Kenya; one of the main reasons was that Mwai
Kibaki made the economic importance of tourism mandatory in order to develop the
country. For instance, in 2010 tourism and travel represented 9 % of the GDP, this
represented $ 3,541million to the economy of Kenya at the same time it created 438,000
jobs (World Economic Forum, 2011, p.236).
It was then evident that politics in Kenya were interested in tourism because it is a
capitalist device (as discussed in the literature review). On the other hand, the researcher
agreeing with Hall (1994) notes that politics are important because they are about
control, at local regional and national level, the same as in Kenya. The intervention of
the government has been important, because the government is integrated with a group
of different organizations and ministries. The government combines its resources:
human, financial and physics, in order to formulate policies to satisfy demands that it
consider important to improve.
Similarly, in interview three it was said that the government of Kenya plays a role in
tourism through the Ministry of Tourism which promotes tourism through the Kenya
Tourism Board. At the same time, It is the organization responsible for regulating
tourism industry, trains and educates service providers through its institutions (see
annex 3).
According to the researcher there was clearly influences of politics in the period 2002 -
2007, although this period was characterized by an economic recovery, (as was
mentioned before). Involvement of the government is evident within tourism and it used
this sector as a medium to reduce poverty, create new jobs, to improve the quality of life
of the people and the economy of Kenya.
On the other hand, the formulation of policies in the tourism sector was made within the
National Plan (2003-2007); consequently the body responsible for achieving this goal
was the Ministry of Tourism. The national tourism policy had as a priority economic,
social, environment and wildlife, security and education factors.

44. 44
The policy implemented by the government was effective, the impact was in the
increase of tourist arrivals (see figure 9), at the same time in the increase of earnings too
(see figure 11). Although the plans implemented by the government were successful,
they had some negative impact especially in local communities and on wildlife.
The period 2007-2008 was identified by political instability after the post election of
2007, as a result of disconformities with the results of the elections of the new
government (2008-2012).
In Kenya tourism is a market susceptible to external and internal hazards. For instance,
internationals tourists were a sensitive sector in Kenya as a consequences of the
unfortunate events experienced in 2007. The image of the country projected by the mass
media was one of insecurity and an unhealthy touristic place; it caused as a result the
cancellation of travel bookings by tourist, affecting industries related to tourism such as
airlines, companies’, tour operators and hotels.
In addition, the decline in numbers of visitors in 2008, (see figure. 12) meant an
important economic loss for the economy of Kenya. This was because this industry is
directly or indirectly linked with other sectors.
At the same time, the unfortunate events experienced in Kenya show that a poor image
was projected as a consequence of this. It is difficult to recover from this, thus
governments should be more aware in order to create a propitious environment and
avoid such types of events from occurring. The government in order to re-establish
political stability signed an agreement with the opposition. It made evident the political
influence of tourism in themes concerning stability.
On the other hand, as the National Plan of the last period was successful, in the period
2008 – 2012, the government was more ambitious and decided to implement the new
National Plan Vision 2030. In this Plan, the political aspect is viewed as a pillar to
develop Kenya and tourism was viewed as an important productive sector to boost the
economy of the country.
The Plan Vision 2030 is integrated for various five term National Plans; in this paper
the researcher has analyzed the first National Plan (2008-2012). This Plan was made by

45. 45
the government after knowing the weakness of the last plan in order to improve and
develop this sector.
The policy-making was similar to the last period. It was focused on economic, social,
environmental, wildlife, security and political aspects. The intervention of the
government through policy making in order to reactivate the tourism in Kenya was
effective. Consequently with the implementation of this new plan and new policies,
tourism in 2009 started to recover after its decline in 2008 (see figure 12) and continued
to grow until 2010.
It is evident from all mentioned that there is great political influence in tourism, it is due
all political environments affect this sector directly or indirectly. The Kenyan
experience can be to extrapolate to other settings or countries, focusing on two essential
ingredients such as: the political will among political actors through arrangements that
safeguard this sector, and policy-making through a National Plan to short , medium and
long term. This will help improve and resolve latent weaknesses in the sector.
It is thus necessary to coordinate correct planning to execute an accurate policy in order
to solve the weakness of this sector.
CHAPTER VI
6. Recommendation
This research shows situation regarding political influence on tourism in Kenya, and
how politics and governments are immersed in the policy process. At the same time it
shows how political instability has direct and indirect effects. Politics however is a
complex and extensive study: this research served as a preliminary study to future
research.
The suggestions for future researches are:
 In future studies it would be important to analyze, how the political ideologies
affect decision making in the tourism sector. It is a consideration that in Kenya
there are 42 ethnics groups, with different values and interests

46. 46
 As the tourism sector in Kenya is an important earner of foreign exchange, and it
is one of the most important sectors in the economy, it is important to conduct
an analysis focused only on the multiplier effect of this sector in the economy of
Kenya. For this the researcher recommends using the model of Input- Output.
 Analyze the effect of international tourism on local communities. It is important
to answer questions such as what is the impact of the policies on local
communities and who benefits from the tourism sector.
 It would be interesting to analyze the influence of the mass media on
international tourists in the principal markets of Kenya, especially in periods of
political instability.

47. 47
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Annexes
Annex 1
This interview was in connection with research carried out by a student at
Universidad Europea de Madrid
The interview was based on a list of questions not predetermined. The time
implemented in this interview was between ten to thirty minutes. It helps to
understand the political factors that have had an influence on the government in
Kenya, in the last 10 years.
Name: James Kamau Bernard Githure Date: January 4, 2012
Public sector/Government: Kenya Embassy Spain- Madrid
1. Do you think that politics have an influence on tourism in Kenya? If so why?
In Kenya it is evident to see the influence of the political environment in tourism and
other economic sectors. It is only necessary to compare the government of Arap Moi
(1978 – 2002) and the government of Mwai Kibaki (2002.2012).The first government
was authoritarian and the majorities of policies implemented were for short-term, in
addition this period was of chaos, corruption and continued internal protest. These
reasons slowed the development of tourism as in the government of Mwai Kibaki.
2. What do you think about tourism in Kenya?
Tourism is a sensitive service sector in Kenya, where the main attractions are based in
natural resources, land, water, wildlife, fauna, and air resources. Maintaining a
sustainable environment focused on conservation thus helps to maintain the resources
for the future, but to do so it is necessary to coordinate the national policies on land-use,
wildlife and tourism.
3. Why is the tourism sector important to the government of Kenya?
Tourism in Kenya is viewed by the government as an important contributor in the
economy of the country nowadays, as consequence of this; tourism has more priority in
the political agenda