1. CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Review of related literature presents the comprehensive development of the problem
background. It indicates what has already been studied by others which have a bearing upon
the present study. The review of related literature stresses two aspects. The first in the
consideration of the subject matter and the second is related to methodology and design. The
review chapter is devoted to the development of the problem statement of the object of
inquiry. The review is utilized to retain a direct relevancy to the study in hand.
According to Best and Kahn (1995), “It provides evidence that the researcher is familiar
with what is already known and what is still unknown and invested. Since effective
research is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the duplication of
what has been done and provides useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for
significant investigation.”
The study of the related literature is been divide into two groups:
1. Indian Reviews.
2. Foreign Review.
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2. 2.2 INDIAN REVIEWS
Kaushal and Patra, Sudhandhu (2011), have done a research on Elementary Education in
Bihar: Some Reflections From DISE (District Information System for Education) Data. Free
and compulsory education has been ensured in the Indian constitution since its inception. It
became a guiding force in the form of Article-45 for providing basic education for all
children up to age of 14 years. Even after more than 60 years of independence some state in
India are still struggling to achieve Universalization of Elementary Education for all.
The methodology was based on the District Information System of Education (DISE)
2006-2007, data base of its published report, flash statistics and state report cards which is
collateral and published by National University of Educational Planning and Administration
(NUEPA). The article has been divided into two parts, in the first part it stresses on Bihar‟s
progress in achieving the goal of Universalization of Elementary Education. In the second
part of the article, the educational development in two states i.e. Bihar and Kerala have been
compared in the terms of different educational indicators which are vital for providing
Universalization of Elementary Education.
The findings of the study were:
i. Much more needed to be done in terms of infrastructure in Bihar as it has got high
student classroom ratio.
ii. Bihar needs more teachers as 17% of schools have got a single teacher teaching more
than 100 students.
iii. Further much more needed to be done to provide technology enhanced learning in
Bihar as only 3% of schools have computer facility.
iv. The state also needs to make an initiative in providing electricity to all schools as the
figures of the school with electricity connection is quite dismal.
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3. Sekher (2010) had conducted a research on Special Financial Incentive Schemes for the Girl
Child in India: A Review of Select Schemes. In order to improve the survival and welfare of
girls and to reverse the distorted sex ratio at birth ,both the national and state governments
have launched special financial incentive schemes for girls.Though most of these conditional
cash transfer schemes are good steps to enhance the status of girls, very little is known about
their implementation and effectiveness. this study was commissioned by UNFPA to review
the performance of fifteen ongoing schemes to promote the well-being of the girl child in
India. The study was conceptualized as a two-step process consisting of review of available
scheme related information followed by a consultation with states to agree upon a more in-
depth primary research and beneficiary assessment of select schemes as the second step.
The methodology of the study was based on review of all the financial incentive
schemes was undertaken and decide on the criteria to short-listing those that could be taken
up for secondary review. A check list for interviewing key stakeholders and a format for
collecting relevant data was prepared and finalized. This was followed by visits to the states
to interview the key informants. Determine whether financial incentives for the girl child
provided through selected schemes have had any bearing on parental attitude and behaviour
with respect to the birth and care of girls. If so, provide further recommendations for
enhancing the impact of the existing schemes.
The major findings were :
i. Dhan Lakshmi Scheme: The introduction of this Scheme been observed that the
operationalization of the scheme is facing challenges mainly due to the large number
of conditions attached to the release of incentives at different stages of immunization
and school attendance.
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4. ii. Ladli Lakshmi Yojana (Madhya Pradesh): It was also observed that apart from the
Anganwadi workers, the Panchayat members are also actively involved in the
promotion of the scheme. Special Gram Sabha meetings were organized to create
awareness about the scheme. Over the years, the implementation of the scheme has
been decentralized to a large extent. The scheme also combines the conditional cash
transfer for improving girls‟ education as well as popularizing the small family norm.
iii. Bhagyalakshmi Scheme (Karnataka): This scheme combines incentives for school
education, immunization and health insurance, restricted to two girls from BPL
families. The scheme also aims at eliminating child labor and ensuring admission to
Anganwadi centres.
iv. Balika Samridhi Yojana (Gujarat): This is a good example of how a centrally
sponsored scheme can be gradually taken over by the state government and
implemented for the benefit of the girls from BPL families.
v. Ladli Scheme (Delhi): This scheme is popular and has resulted in many positive
changes. The officials claim that the birth registration has improved and that the
enrollment of girls in schools has also picked up. In order to make it more citizen-
friendly, the eligibility conditions were modified.
vi. Girl Child Protection Scheme(GCPS) (Andhra Pradesh): It includes childhood
immunization, family planning, education up to Standard 12, and marriage of girls not
before 18 years of age. During the last five years, it has attracted nearly 3,67,000
beneficiaries. A detailed study of this scheme will help us understand the performance
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5. of a girl child promotion scheme in the last 15 years and the kind of impact it has had
on the beneficiaries and their families
vii. Mukhya Mantri Kanya Suraksha Yojana (Bihar): The beneficiary must come under
the age group, 0-3 years. The family can avail themselves of the benefits for the first
two girl children and on completion of 18 years, the amount equal to the maturity
value will be paid to the girl child. PRIs and women‟s groups are actively involved at
the implementation level. The number of applicants actually surpassed what the
allocated funds could provide. The scheme has a component to cover the
administrative cost . The Anganwadi workers were given incentives for promoting the
scheme. An evaluation will provide useful insights into the implementation
mechanism and ways to improve its effectiveness.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept of Elementary Education and
Literacy, New Delhi. (1999), conducted a study on Educating Adolescent Girls : Opening
Windows. Adolescents need specific attention, education and information. This study was
done to map the experiences in educating adolescent girls in five states namely Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
The major findings were:
i. In Andhra Pradesh, six organizations were studied. They successfully launched and
sustained a programme for girls education. They brought together girls for vocational
training and literacy and focussed on empowering adolescent girls. There was a
marked difference girls showed more confidence and had greater self esteem, majority
of them were Muslims. The girls were looked after with care and sensitivity.
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6. ii. In Bihar, four Mahila Shiksha Kendras (DIET, Maria Ashram, District Sheikhpura
and Fakirana) were selected. At MSK a minimum of Class 5 education was attained
and it ensured that there was no relapse into illiteracy. The Bihar Education
Programme provided an easy way for girls to complete Class 5 and continue with
Class 6 in Government schools. MSKs educational motivation programme showed
girls, who lived in different and distressing circumstances, how to live together, be
well groomed, keep the surroundings clean, and participate in extra curricular
activities.
iii. In Rajasthan, to understand the necessary and sufficient conditions for girls enrolment
and education, Balika Shikshan Vihars were organized between 1996 and 1999.
Sensitivity of the programme played a role in ensuring enrolment and retention in the
camps. The flexible curriculum and camp approach relieved girls from daily duties
and helped them to learn faster. Social consciousness and gender sensitivity were
generated. The retention of girls from varying social backgrounds in the camp was
made possible
iv. In Delhi, Katha and Ankur had implemented educational programmes for adolescent
girls for over 10 years. Girls reached a high level of competence in life skills, became
confident, assertive and in command of their lives. They understood societal
constraints, patriarchy and sexuality through analysis of their own situation. They also
acquired skills in computers, stitching, beauty therapy, read newspaper regularly, and
were able to interact freely with boys in classes and workshops.
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7. v. Mahila Samakhya, a block-specific programme in Uttar Pradesh, operated in 10
districts. Major achievements of the programme were that it ensured regular
attendance and built confidence among girls. Teachers noticed that girls aspirations
changed and they became role models for others.
Indian Institute of Education, Pune (2006), conducted a study on A Study of the Extent
and Causes of Dropouts in Primary Schools in Rural Maharashtra with Special Reference to
Girl Dropouts. The problem of school dropout has been continually troubling the primary
education system not only in India but in other developing countries too. The present study
was done to assess the factors that resulted in dropout of school children with gender
differentials.
The methodology used was based on the study conducted in 3 districts of Maharashtra
viz Akola, Beed and Bhandara and covered 24 schools in 24 villages. Data was collected
through survey and by interviewing parents and community people. All the schools were
from Standard I to VII.
The major finding revealed in all the 3 districts, the total number of male teachers was
139 which was more compared to female teachers, 68. It was found that the absence of
female teachers in rural schools was a serious obstacle to improving girls‟ participation rates
and reducing dropout rates. The study found low job satisfaction among teachers, and the
main reasons were low salary and mediocre living conditions. Teachers were also
preoccupied with the lack of equipment and the shortage of teaching materials. Another
problem mentioned by them was that they were not properly supported by the parents of
pupils. Another factor that seriously limited the ability of teachers to devote themselves fully
to their teaching job and to invest time in improving school functioning was the involvement
of teachers in other official and other income generating activities, which led them to move
49

8. out from remote areas. Almost all parents stated lack of encouragement from the school,
particularly in the case of girls which relates to lack of faith in the school as an instrument of
social promotion. The poor quality of schools was regularly quoted as another factor which
negatively affected the demand for education and indirectly influenced school dropouts
because it led to discouragement and de-motivation of pupils. Home environment played an
important role in school failure and dropping out of children. Many people in rural areas lived
without electricity and running water. Many children, especially girls, had to fetch firewood
and potable water. Children had little contact with the written word outside of school due to
paucity of reading material and the low educational level of parents. All these factors
contributed to irregular school attendance which led to dropouts.
Nayar, Usha. (1999),studied on Planning For UPE (Universalization Primary Education) Of
Girls And Women's Empowerment : Gender Studies In DPEP (District Primary Education
Program). A study was conducted in 44 low female literacy districts of 8 states of India,
namely Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Haryana, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and
Kerala, to identify areas of intervention for universalizing primary education among girls
with focus on women‟s equality and empowerment.
The methodology was based on the interviews were conducted in 13013 households;
with 2424 dropout girls; 4316 never enrolled girls; 792 teachers, 269 educational
administrators and 416 community leaders in more than 400 villages and urban slums. Focus
group discussions were also conducted with parents and community members.
The findings of the study revealed that participation of women in educational
administration is negligible in most districts. The provision of support services like
Anganwadis and Balwadis were absent in sample villages of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
Except for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, there was acute shortage of women teachers in rural
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9. areas. Linkages with other Departments like Women and Child, Social Welfare, etc. were not
effective. Mahila Mandals and other women‟s groups were nearly absent in sample villages
of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, in other states, they were ineffective, at times functioning
only on paper. Study found that parental motivation and education, followed by economic
status of the household, were the key factors for continuance of girls in schools. The main
reasons for girls dropping out of school were found to be poverty of the household, and
gender based division of labour and resources. Lack of women teachers and separate schools
for girls were among the most prominent factors for girls dropping out of schools in almost
all the states. Poverty and social discrimination were the major hurdles faced by scheduled
caste and scheduled tribe girls; while the restrictions on women and girls, and negative
attitudes to girls‟ education were the prominent reasons for Muslim girls dropping out from
schools. In the case of non enrolled girls, domestic work and helping parents in their
occupations, and being engaged in remunerative work, were found to be the chief reason in
Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
Saxena, R.R. et al. (2000), has done a study on State Policies on Incentive Schemes in
Primary Schools and their Contribution to Girls' Participation. The study reviewed the
policies on incentives for girls' participation and their implementation strategies in States and
UTs. It identified factors which contributed to girls' participation in primary education.
The methodology was based on the data was collected on the basis of the opinion of
parents and village heads about the implementation of incentive schemes in Tamil Nadu and
Uttar Pradesh. The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase I, data was collected from 32
States and UTs. In Phase -2, in-depth field study covered a sample of rural primary schools of
Tamil Nadu and U.P.
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10. The major findings of the study revealed that girls' gross enrolment ratio (GER) at
primary stage rose from 60.5% in 1970-71 to 73.5% in 1992-93 and dropout rate decreased
from 70.9% to 46.7%. The gap in GER of boys and girls narrowed during the intervening
period. The State Governments organised community awareness campaigns to enhance girls'
education and provided crèches and day care centres to free girls from babysitting their
siblings. State Governments also introduced direct incentives like mid-day meals, free supply
of uniforms, free text books, attendance incentive and scholarships for girls. Three kilo grams
(kg) of food grains per month was supplied to each student in most of the States. In Tamil
Nadu, noon-meal is served to students throughout the year including holidays. The above
incentives had resulted in notable progress in girls' education at primary stage. Goa, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Punjab, Tamil
Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Delhi, Lakshadweep and
Pondicherry have achieved more than 90 per cent gender parity at primary stage. Bigger
states like Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh have
gender parity below 80 percent. Factors pertaining to percentage of population below the
poverty line, per capita expenditure on elementary education and percentage of SC
population were negatively associated with GER. Increased educational facility in rural areas,
number of female teachers and serving cooked meals resulted in higher girls‟ enrolment.
Broader coverage under the 3 schemes, namely, free text books, free Uniform and attendance
scholarship also indicated positive association.
Saroja, K. (1999), has studied on School Related Factors Affecting The Female School
Drop-Out Phenomenon In Rural Areas: A Case Study. This article analysed the structure of
school education and the factors influencing female school dropouts in schools in Ron Taluka
of Gadag district, Karnataka.
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11. The methodology was based on the sample comprised 6 schools. Personal
observations and interview guides were also used.
The findings revealed that out of nearly 50% female population, less than 20% were
literate.There were 92 villages in Ron Taluka, and of them 7 were without schools. Out of a
total of 162 schools, 43 were exclusively for boys, 15 were only for girls and the remaining
were coeducational. This could be one reason for girls dropping out from schools. 73% of the
teachers in schools were male and this could also be a reason for girls to drop out. Another
reason for girls to drop out was that 4 schools were located on the outskirts of the village. In
only 3 schools educational and sports material like science kit, radio, cassettes were available.
Data showed that boys enrolment in schools was higher than girls enrolment , but the total
attendance of both boys and girls was less than the enrolment. In 40 villages, schools offered
upto lower primary education, and 45 village schools provided education up to upper primary
level. Government recommended teacher student ratio was 1:40, but it was found to be 1:66
in the sample schools.
Tinnari, (2002) has done a study on Impact Study of Education Incentives to School Going
Girls in Haryana. A study was carried out to investigate whether government initiatives had
an impact on girl‟s education in Haryana. Haryana‟s population was 21.0 million in 2001.
Children in the age group 0-6 years numbered 3.2 million. Sex ratio decreased from 871 in
1951 to 861 in 2001. The sex ratio for all ages was highest in Mahendragarh and improved
from 910 in 1991 to 919 in 2001. The present study investigated the education component of
the Integrated Women‟s Empowerment Development Programme (IWEDP) under which
some incentives were given to encourage parents to send their girls to primary schools, and to
help them continue up to higher secondary level. This project also gave incentives to women
to become regular members of the Jagriti Mandalis (women‟s empowerment groups). Kishori
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12. Balika Yojana is a very good programme, and this programme is popular as Didi (Elder
Sister) Programme in the villages. A remarkable aspect of the project was the horizontal
integration of women of all castes and classes.
The methodology covered 40 villages, four each in ten C.D. Blocks of districts
Mahendragarh and Rewari. Inall 371 girl beneficiaries were interviewed in groups.
The findings revealed that in Mahendragarh district, child sex ratio (0-6 years) has
fallen steeply from 892 in 1991 to 814 in 2001. Female literacy rate has gone up from 36.5%
to 54.61% during 1991-2001. In Rewari district, women constituted 47.38% of the total
population of the district. The sex ratio has fallen steeply from 927 in 1991 to 901 in 2001.
The child sex ratio (0-6 years) has fallen from 894 in 1991 to 814 in2001. Female literacy
rate has gone up from 46.3% to 61.45% during 1991-2001. In Rewari district, educational
incentives were given to the girls in the form of money. The incentives
encouraged mothers to attend JMs meetings and send their daughters to school. The
number of primary schools in Mahendragarh district has gone up from 347 to 705, and from
277 to 517 in Rewari district during 1994-2000. Female enrolment has gone up in both the
districts.In the IWEDP districts, education of girls has made substantial progress. The impact
of incentive based education on attitudes to self in terms of self image and self esteem of girls
has been positive.
Jay Prakash (2005), has done a study on Adolescent Girl‟s Scheme: Kishori Shakti Yojna.
An intervention for adolescent girls (11-18 years) the Kishori Shakti Yojana (KSY) was
launched in 2000-01 as part of the ICDS scheme. The scheme aims at breaking the
intergenerational life-cycle of nutritional and gender disadvantage and providing a supportive
environment for self-development.
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13. The methodology was based on the data from primary sources have been collected by
making visit to the ICDS block/project site and interviewing CDPOs, Workers, adolescent
girls; through structured questionnaire; focused group discussions among adolescent girls
and focused group discussions among the parents of adolescent. Data from secondary
sources envisages collection of information on details of scheme composition and
components and its implementation strategy guidelines.
The major findings were:
i. In the state of Uttar Pradesh, KSY has been implemented at AWC level after
conducting survey of BPL families. Only 3 adolescent girls are selected for training
under the scheme from one AWC for every six months. Generally those girls are
preferred who have less number of years of schooling and shown interest in joining
the KSY at AWC. It was stated by CDPOs that under the scheme the trainings are
being provided for stitching, embroidery; and education related to the health of
adolescent girls, life style and cleanliness. Specifically, the training is provided on
vocational training and health education. The vocational training is provided for 60
days while the health education is provided only for 3 days. The adolescent girls
receive a stipend of Rs 400 in addition to the refreshment during the training. The
scheme is monitored by Sector Supervisors, CDPOs and DPOs. Reporting is done by
AWC to Supervisor then CDPOs and the final report goes to DPO office.
ii. In the state of Rajasthan, KSY has been implemented at 20 AWCs at a time every
year 30 adolescent girls are selected from school drop-outs, orphaned and BPL
families. The adolescent girls are provided knowledge and awareness about literacy,
behavior related cleanliness, hygiene, environmental pollution, etc. Trainings are
provided to all AWCs for 5 days at the block. The girls are provided knowledge and
awareness about their own health and hygiene on fixed days of the week. Girls are
55

14. also provided IFA tablets at the AWCs. Sports activities are also organized for
adolescent girls at AWCs. Girls were also taken for an exposure visit under the
scheme. Two girls from each AWC under the scheme had been selected for a five day
training at the block level. AWCs were also accompanied during the training as the
parents of girls did not allow their daughter to go to the block alone for 5 days.
Kothari, V N. (2004),Challenge of Universalization of Elementary Education in India. The
study was conducted by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
(NIEPA) to explain the elementary education scenario in India through the use of a variety of
data sources such as Census, the NSS, NCERT and NFHS surveys. The overall development
situation was assessed with respect to gender, age, rural-urban divide, expenditure groups,
village amenities, and health status of children. India was classified in the medium human
development category.
The findings revealed that adult literacy rate was extremely low in India 55.7% in 1998,
youth literacy rate was 71%, and enrolment ratio in primary education (1997) was found to be
77.2%. To conclude, it was emphasized that we are far from attaining the goal of universal
enrolment of children 6 to 14 years of age. It is even possible that under-nourishment, severe
morbidity and physical disability are delaying their entry into school. For girls and for first
generation learners school has to become more attractive. Unless we take adequate steps, we
as a country are likely to remain stuck at 80%-85% enrolment rates, while most of the
developing countries would be heading towards 100% enrolment.
Choudhury, Geeta et al. (2006) had done a research on Shiksha Sangam: Innovations Under
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
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15. The findings showed that innovations taken by some states of India under Sarv
Shiksha Abhiyan like boat school, video conferencing under distance education ,alternatives
for gifted girls, bridge courses for children with special needs helped in raising the literacy
rate of those states as well as helped in reducing gender gap in education.
Juneja, Nalini and Nandi, Nabanita (2000), have conducted a research on Metropolitan
Cities in India and Education of the Poor: the City of Indore: An Educational Profile.
The findings showed that with help of NGOs, minority institutions, religious
institutions and UNICEF collaboration they started a program called Nirbhay which aimed at
reaching out to slum children to make them literate and teach them some vocational skills.
This was an effective program helped to reach that marginalized section of the society
2.3 FOREIGN REVIEW
Kate Mitchell,(2012) has studied on Female Spatial Capability in Northern India. Her
research is based on Mukhyamantri Balika cycle Yojna in Bihar. Her was to study Socio-
cultural attitudes, norms and practices that shape and define female freedom of mobility in
Bihar and the effect it has on female freedom of movement in order to bring gender equality
and female empowerment in the region.
The methodology was based on the primary interview and observational data gathered
in this project has been supplemented by various secondary sources of information including
government documents, blogs, NGO generated reports and data, newspaper articles, podcasts,
and both historical and cultural literature. An inductive approach was used to analysing the
primary data. The initial data collection session consisted of 34 interviews conducted in 17
57

16. rural villages as well as two focus group interviews of school going girls and married
women; to verify the data collected from the primary source.
The findings showed that the scheme has altered a number of female mobility patterns for the
better, firstly by increasing access to schools for unmarried females. The provision of
bicycles also freed the time which girls would previously have spent on walking to school, a
resource which unmarried women are lack. Beyond providing the means of mobility, the
scheme has challenged the patriarchal spatiality of Bihar, in that though public space still is
male dominated, yet it is now completely commonplace to see young unmarried women
cycling. Hosts of girls cycling in the public space presents a powerful image and
demonstrates that they are pushing into the male dominated public realm, and reveals that
gendered mobilities are not set in stone. In this regard, the Bicycle Scheme holds the promise
of a sustained change in spatial capability, at least for Bihar‟s unmarried females. However,
despite these benefits, and the fact that the scheme provides access to a means of transport: a
bicycle, the scheme shorts falls in short in fully enabling the spatial capability of females and
empowering them across their life span. The extremely poor quality of the government
education provided in Bihar means that increasing female access to school is less of an
achievement, as it is less likely to provide females which the ability and confidence to bring
about change in their society. Similarly, many females are not accessing the scheme, as they
are not attending school, either because they are married, working, or their families are too
poor or unwilling to invest in their education. What is particularly worrying is that the
villages which only contained zero to two schoolgirls over 9th grade, were all scheduled caste
villages. As such the scheme seems to be failing to increase the spatial capability of the most
disadvantaged sections of Bihar.
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17. Gina Porter (2011), has studied on Gender Perspectives on Transport Infrastructure and
Services in Africa: Issues, Challenges and the Potential for Positive Change. The study revolve
around transport and mobility constraints shape women and girls‟ access to services and
livelihoods.
The major findings were:
i. Female poverty and illiteracy has interdependent factors as lack of mobility and health
and social stigmas.
ii. There is gender discrimination in mobility factors especially related to education and
livelihood.
Karthik Muralidharan and Nishith Prakash ,(2011) have done a research on Cycling to
School: Increasing High School Girl’s Enrolment in Bihar. A fundamental policy challenge
in many developing countries is therefore to identify cost-effective and scalable policies that
improve the schooling of girls. While hundreds of schemes have been launched as pilots and
then discarded when the government changes, the bicycle programme in Bihar is one that has
caught the imagination of voters as well as political leaders and its high visibility has led to
interest in whether it can be replicated in other parts of India. This research will help
policymakers decide on the next steps.
The findings of the study were „super preliminary‟, they show that giving free bikes to girls
has helped to bridge the gap by between 20% and 25%. In many Bihari schools, there were
around 100 boys for every 60 girls. Since the bicycle programme was introduced, the study
suggests that there are now around 70 girls for every 100 boys.
Stewart, A., & Chapman-Abbott, J. (2011), have done a research on Remote Island
Students‟ Post-Compulsory Retention: Emplacement And Displacement As Factors
Influencing Educational Persistence Or Discontinuation. The research offers insights into the
59

18. socio-spatial ambiguities experienced differently in different social contexts by students
seeking a better education and the opportunities of urban living and at the same time longing
for the island and island community.
The methodology was based on ethnographic research using grounded theory we
examined social, cultural and locational factors which result in low post-compulsory retention
rates of remote island students. The research, conducted by an island “insider,” followed a
cohort of Australian students from Year 10 in a small island school off the coast of Tasmania
to Year 11 in a secondary college on the Tasmanian mainland. The research investigated
factors, identified by the students, that influenced their transition from Year 10, the final year
of compulsory schooling, through to Years 11 and 12, and their persistence or discontinuation
Attachment to the island as their home place and the emplacement of their cultural ties to
family and community contrasted with the displacement experienced in the urban
environment.
The major findings were:
i. The fact was highlighted that some of the island students who were performing well
academically, and whose aspirations before leaving the island were high, were among
those who discontinued their study during Year 11.
ii. The strength of homesickness of both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students, not only
for family and friends but for the island itself, was exacerbated for some students by
periods of ill health with associated interruptions to study, resulting in loss of confidence.
iii. This was accentuated by weakening of peer networks, financial hardship exacerbated by
inability to find part-time paid employment, and related sense of de-skilling.
iv. Despite earlier student and family recognition of the opportunity offered by college
education, a successful transition from Year 10 at the island school and an early
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19. adjustment to Year 11 studies, this cascade of issues served to undermine students‟ sense
of efficacy and identity in the city and to increase their desire to return to the island.
v. Student perceptions of place and their attachment to place varied with social and spatial
context as they adapted to the experience of migrating between the island and the city.
The significance of cultural and social values in the home place anchored them on the
island and the hopes and expectations for new lifestyle and freedoms, to which they saw
education as the key, attracted them to the city
Weir, Susan (2003) has done a research on The Evaluation Of Breaking The Cycle: A
Follow-Up Of The Achievements Of 6th Class Pupils In Urban Schools. The aim of the
Breaking the Cycle scheme is to assist selected primary schools in addressing problems
associated with catering for large numbers of pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds. The
scheme, which was introduced to 33 schools in urban areas in 1996/97, provides for reduced
class size at junior level; grants for the purchase of books, teaching materials and equipment;
enhanced capitation grants; and in career development programmes for teachers.
The methodology was based on the evaluation effort directed towards assessing the
scheme‟s impact on pupils, and the extent to which a range of factors such as pupil
attendance, attitudes, attainments, and achievements were affected by participation in the
scheme. The achievements in reading and Mathematics of 3rd and 6th class pupils were
assessed using standardised tests in the first and fourth years of the scheme.
The major findings indicated that the achievements of pupils on both occasions were
significantly lower than those of pupils nationally, and that there was a statistically significant
decrease in the average literacy and numeracy achievements of pupils in 6 th class between
1997 and 2000. The report focuses on documenting the results of follow-up testing of 6th
class pupils in 2003. Unlike the 6th class cohorts tested on previous occasions, the majority
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20. of pupils in the 2003 cohort should have benefited from the key provisions of the scheme,
including junior education in small classes. However, the reading and Mathematics levels of
pupils in the 2003 cohort did not differ from those in the 2000 cohort, and were significantly
lower than those of pupils in 6th class when the scheme began.
Brannigan, Vincent M. et al., (2004) have done a research on Promoting Academic
Achievement And Motivation: A Discussion & Contemporary Issues Based Approach. In the
current context of the “No Child Left Behind Act,” schools nationwide are facing an
increased level of accountability for their students‟ academic performance. The research
focused on exploring methods of improving the academic motivation of adolescent middle
school students and relating academic motivation to actual school performance.
The methodology was designed and implemented by the team for a 4-month
participant-based study at a local middle school with a sample of 8th graders. During this
period, they established and directed an after-school program for students in which they used
an interactive discussion and contemporary issues-based approach as a way to introduce
students to various academic areas not necessarily covered in class. They also assessed
whether students attitudes toward learning were related to their academic performance. Both
quantitative survey data and open-ended qualitative questionnaire was used to collect data.
The findings suggest that students‟ attitudes toward learning improved over the course
of the 4-month period, and their academic motivation increased. The relationship between
academic motivation and academic performance was still not clear at that point. Nevertheless,
the team stressed on the importance of implementing more interactive discussions and
activities in middle school classrooms, many of which are facing increasing pressure to
design their curricula around standardized tests.
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21. Salih Usun (2004), has done a research on Important Learning Dimensions Influencing
Undergraduate Students Learning and Academic Achievement in Higher Education. The
main aim of this study was to determine the opinions of the undergraduate students and
faculty members on factors that affect student learning and academic achievement.
The methodology used to determine some of the important learning dimensions
influencing academic performance within the classroom environment a questionnaire as a
survey of 23 items was applied to 168 undergraduate students and 45 faculty members at the
Department of Primary Education of Faculty of Education of Canakkale Onsekiz Mart
University, Turkey during the fall 2003 semester. The statistical techniques were used to
delve out inference from the data collected.
The findings showed that in 10 instructional dimensions there was a statistically
significant difference between two populations. The positive t value indicated that the mean
score for the students was higher than the mean score for the faculty member. This was true
for 6 of the 10 dimensions. But both gave low importance to dimensions such as the hour of
day class meet, required or selective lectures, textbook, course supplements and faculty
members‟ concern for students as individuals. This study demonstrated that both the
undergraduate students and faculty members felt that faculty member provided a major input
in the learning and teaching processes. Namely, the undergraduate students and faculty
members agreed on most factors supposed important to student learning.
Nooraini Othman and Kong Bee Leng (2011), have done a research work on The
Relationship Between Self-Concept, Intrinsic Motivation, Self-Determination And Academic
Achievement Among Chinese Primary School Students. In educational setting, success is
measured by academic achievement, or how well a student meets standards set out by
educational board or the institution itself. The main purpose of this study is to examine the
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22. relationship between self-concept, intrinsic motivation and self-determination with academic
achievement among the respondents.
The methodology was based on the sample of 200 students in standard 5 and standard
6 from a Chinese primary school in Johor, Malaysia. Data was collected using a self-
developed set of questionnaire. The reliability of the instrument was tested using Cronbach‟s
Alpha and the result was 0.941. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) version 17.0. Pearson correlation at the significant level of 0.05 was used in
order to determine the relationships among the measured variables.
This findings showed that there is a weak significant relationship between self-
concept and academic achievement among the students, a weak and negative significant
relationship between students‟ intrinsic motivation and their academic achievement and a
weak significant and negative relationship between students‟ self-determination and their
academic achievement. Apart from such relationship, there are other factors considered to be
salient in nature but relevant and contribute to the success of the students‟ performance.
These factors include the role of significant others such as family support, teachers‟ attitude
and peers understanding which have been found by this research.
2.4 CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
In the above reviews the researcher has studied 20 reviews out of which 12 are Indian
reviews and 8 are foreign reviews. The researcher has taken related literature concerned not
only with Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojna, but research done on the other government
scheme of various states in India. The researcher has studied the review of research based on
the government and school schemes providing transportation and aid to education in different
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23. countries. The researcher has also taken into account the review of the researches based on
academic achievement and motivation.
Kaushal, S. and Patra, Sudhandhu S. ( 2011) found that though Bihar has worked hard on
providing all basic necessities for a school it is still lacking quality in education.
Sekher‟s (2011) found that various schemes for girl given by state governments. But it has
not been conducted for Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojna. Though the schemes of
government are good on paper but only few get the benefit of these. The complication lies in
the implementation of the schemes.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept of Elementary Education and Literacy,
New Delhi (1999) found that in educating younger generation non profit organisation also
plays a vital role. The study was conducted in five different states and the result of each NGO
was positive. The girls had not only done academically well but had also gained confidence
in most of the cases. The NGOs helped adolescent especially girls by providing them
vocational education as stated by the research of Juneja, Nalini and Nandi, Nabanita (2000).
Indian Institute of Education, Pune (2006) found that the most important problems behind
drop out of girls like helping hand at home , poverty early marriages etc. This research is very
important as to make further policy to eradicate all problems that lead to drop out of girls
from schools.
Usha, Nayar (1999) found that in 44 districts with low female literacy to know the causes
behind it. The research showed that the deficit government machinery and poor
implementation of the schemes were the root cause of low female literacy in these
districts.The research only taken account the data provided by the government machinery
whereas the actual cases may be larger than stated in the data.
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24. Saxena, R.R. et al.(2000) found that the schemes of government did help to increase
enrolment on retention of girls in the school and reduced gender parity ratio. However it
lacked the implementation effect of the schemes.
Saroja, K.(1999) found that the results of her research oppossed the government norms. The
student–teacher ratio was quite high and schools were far away from the villages which led to
the lesser enrolment of the girls in the school.
Tinnari (2003) found that Haryana has lowest gender ratio in India as well very low female
literacy rate. The study revealed that the schemes providing for the girl child helped the
parents to send them to school.
Jay Prakash (2005) found a contrast between UP and Rajasthan. In UP where girls were
freely allowed to joined schemes and get benefit of it grew more self confident, whereas in
Rajasthan fewer girls opted for schemes and even less if it required to go out of station.
Kothari, V N. (2004) found that the elementary education scenario in India through the use of
a variety of data sources such as Census, the NSS, NCERT and NFHS surveys. Hence it
lacked actual numbers. The study revealed the marginalised section of the society like
female, disable person and so called low caste people are yet to gain under Universalization
of elementary education.
Choudhury, Geeta et al. (2006) found that use of modern technology not only helps in quality
education e.g. in audio visual aids but also helps in reaching out many more students in
remote places.
Kate Mitchell (2011) found a positive increase in female mobility especially in Bihar after the
scheme was introduced. But such mobility did not last for life span as the female liberties are
curbed once they are married.
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25. Gina Porter (2011) found that the female mobility in respect to livelihood and education did
increase in the rural areas of Africa by the use of cycles. This ethnographic research touched
various aspects of the life of an African woman and showed that the cycle was a boon for
them both socially and economically.
Karthik Muralidharan and Nishith Prakash (2011) found that MBCY increased the mobility
of girls in Bihar as compared to Jharkhand.
Stewart, A., & Chapman-Abbott, J. (2011) found environment plays a vital role in the
academic achievement and further studies of the students, especially in those who come from
culturally different background.
Weir, Susan (2003) found that giving grants for books, school fees etc and reducing class size
does increase the academic achievement of the students. In India they cause may be different
but such schemes do increase attendance and enrolment of the students.
Brannigan, V. M. et al. (2004), found that the child based curriculum, discussion, interactions
in classroom etc does increase the academic achievement of students. Such could be achieved
even in the short time period of 4 months.
Nooraini Othman and Kong Bee Leng (2011) found that the primary school children were not
guided by intrinsic motivation or self esteem. The extrinsic factors much influenced their
achievement scores.
Salih Usun (2004) found that there is a difference in motivational factors of grown up
students . They value have their studies and faculty more. They have more intrinsic
motivation than extrinsic motivation.
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26. The reviews of the literature especially on Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojna showed
that the scheme is beneficial for the girls. The results of research agree that it helps in female
mobility and helping girls to come to school. Whereas in other researches we saw that there is
lack of quality education in Bihar.
In this research, the researcher differs from the above researches in the following way:
i. The area of research taken under the study is not specifically studied by any
other researcher.
ii. The sample of the research is a contrast between government school and
minority-aided school girls which is not studied by any other researcher.
iii. The effect of motivation on the academic achievement of the girls under
MBCY is not studied by any other researcher earlier.
iv. The study of MBCY with respect to parents education, habitation and family
income has not been studied earlier.
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