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Recognition Struggles and Process Theories of Social Movements




                                   Carol Mueller
                            Arizona State University West




Paper prepared for the workshop on “Recognition Struggles” organized by Barbara
Hobson at the University of Stockholm. Summer, 2001.
Introduction

        The present collection offers an unusual opportunity to examine process
theories of social movements in light of a rich diversity of chapters on “recognition
struggles.” The present theorizing of recognition struggles represent sustained
attention to one of the central concerns of social movement theory: the frequently
adversarial process of gaining and losing recognition for identities in the course of a
wide range of collective actions. That most of the “action” recorded here shows the
intersection of the discursive and the political serves to expand social process theories
of social movements further in the incorporation of identity framing and construction.
Thus, the concept of collective identities represents a theoretical bridge between the
two forms of theorizing. The chapters encompass a diversity of mobilizations that
occur as identities become the objects as well as the means of struggle.

        In the language of social movement process theories, recognition struggles
concern the intersection of collective identities and the field of collective action. Yet,
social movement theory has had far more to say about “struggles” (collective action/
contentious politics) than how they are aided or hindered by recognition of the
identities of participants, beneficiaries, interested bystanders and adversaries.
Although most theorists will agree that the framing of identities is a necessary but
potentially hazardous task for any social movement, there is considerable
disagreement about the degree to which existing, “natural” or inherited identities form
the basis of mobilization, solidarity and continuity for struggles over time much less
recent concerns about collective identities as the object of struggle. Current social
movement theory has not resolved the issue of whether the role of collective identities
in a process of mobilization is one of rediscovery of traits suppressed by a system of
cultural and political domination or is it primarily the result of a creative process
based in the ongoing interpretive work of the movement (della Porta and Diani, 1999:
94). Most likely, it is both, but how much of each and under what circumstances? This
lack of resolution does not imply that collective identities have not figured in
contemporary theorizing, but that there is not a strong consensus from which to
approach the contributions in the present volume. This is, to some extent, a result of
the particular way in which issues of identity entered contemporary process theories
of social movements.

        European scholars were the first to insist on the centrality of collective
identities to the study of social movements (Pizzorno, 1978; Touraine 1981; Melucci
1985, 1989, 1995, 1996), although, among contemporary theorists, Tilly’s concept of
“catnet” (1978) had recognized the foundation of collective action in social networks
characterized by categorical meanings. In the 1970s and 1980s most North American
students of social movements had embraced the assumptions of Olson’s (1963)
rational actor model and cast off questions of meaning and symbolism as dangerously
associated with the irrational assumptions embedded in mass society and much of
collective behavior theory (McPhail, 1996). Preoccupied with questions of why social
movements succeed or fail, they developed resource mobilization (McCarthy and
Zald, 1973, 1977) and political opportunity paradigms (McAdam, 1982; Tarrow,
1989). The European challenge, combined with an increasingly post-modern
academic environment, moved North Americans toward a “cultural turn” (Morris and
Mueller, 1992; Larana, Johnston and Gusfield, 1994; Johnston and Klandermans,
1995) which has resulted in increasingly integrated approaches to the studies of social
movements (della Porta and Diani, 1999; McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, forthcoming).

        The “discovery” of collective identities by U.S. theorists proceeded slowly
from its origins in European “new social movement theory”. It has been introduced
into North American work through local traditions in social psychology, symbolic


                                                                                        1
interactionism, and framing, broadly conceived as social construction. These
approaches place a major emphasis on systems of meaning negotiated between the
individual and various collective levels of social movements. They examine the
constructio n of identities as one of the ongoing processes of collective action. The
focus has been primarily on collective identities generated through collective action
rather than the great variety of antecedent identities such as gender, ethnicity, nation,
religion, and/or class. Like its European predecessors in new social movement theory,
the U.S. approach has focused almost exclusively on identities created in toto within
social movements. With the increasing attention to mobilizations organized around
antecedent identities in the last ten years, theorizing has begun to reflect more
systematically the problematics of recognition struggles as they are understood in the
present volume. While incorporating much of social constructionism, more recent
work reflects additional issues that arise from mobilizations based on identities that
have at least some portion of their origins in the history, myths, symbols, and
collective memories associated with antecedent social locations. My purpose here is
to focus on the issues raised by four of the major theorists (or theory teams) working
on issues of collective identity in Europe and North America and examine the way in
which their issues are expanded by the studies in this volume

Identization and the Construction Social Movement Identities

        Alberto Melucci. Of the Europeans working on an interpretation of
contemporary social movements through collective identities, Alberto Melucci has
been the most influential in bringing the concept to international attention and the
most persistent in insisting on the “newness” of these movements (1989, 1996). The
two are closely interconnected. Based on his field theoretic approach to research in
Italy, Melucci’s concept of collective identities is all encompassing. For him, the
collective identity is the movement and the movement itself is process. The process is
that of becoming a social actor, of becoming a playaer on the stage of world history.
At one point, he recommends that the process be indicated by the verb, identization
rather than the noun (1995: ). The verb represents the process.While not denying
that movements operate in an environment of constraints and resources, he is most
impressed by the indeterminacy of the movement as a social actor that lacks the
coherence its ideologues and antagonists attribute to it. His understanding of
collective identity as a verb reflects this highly contingent status.

        The identity consists of the contingent definitions of means, ends and fields of
action that exist in a state of tension arising from a system of social relationships as
well as systems of meaning. Tensions are accentuated in a time of crisis when the
unity of the actor is tested and people fight not only for concrete and symbolic
objects, but also for “the possibility of recognizing themselves and being recognized
as subjects of their action” (1995: 48). Through collective identities, social actors
recognize each other, are recognized by others, set boundaries, determine criteria for
membership, select members and provide continuity over time.

        Melucci has also argued for over twenty years that because these movements
are not based in traditional identities of class or ethnicity, but rest on opposition to
new forms of domination, the processes of collective identities are uniquely important
and constitute (if successful) major outcomes of social movements by creating new
social actors. Contending that contemporary movements mark a historical departure in


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the extent to which they target civil society, make claims that are largely directed
toward cultural systems, and recruit adherents from constituencies where social
movement participation lacks the solidarity of working class or ethnic communities,
he takes issue with resource mobilization and political process approaches that ignore
the expressive outcomes of social movements, most notably the creation of viable
collective identities.

        Systematic attention to collective identities came to North America largely
through Melucci’s work, stimulated by Jean Cohen’s special issue of Social Research
in 1985. Although many have disagreed about the “newness” of contemporary
movements, his work has been widely appreciated in both Europe and the United
States. Attention to the processes by which identities are created through collective
action marked a major departure in the mid-1980s. Despite the major preoccupation
of U.S. social movement scholars with resource mobilization and political process
issues during the 1970s and early 1980s, both social psychologists and scholars from
symbolic interaction traditions were adapting Ervin Goffman’s (1974) Frame
Analysis to help understand how participants in social movements create meanings to
interpret their situation (see particularly, Gamson, et al. 1982; Klandermans, 1984;
Ferree and Miller, 1985; Snow, et al. 1986). Soon this approach was joined with the
emerging interest in collective identities. The two principle scholarly groups here are
David Snow, Robert Benford and their colleagues concerned with the framing tasks
faced by social movement organizations and Gamson and his colleagues working on
media framing of social movements and issue campaigns. Where Melucci’s
identization encompasses the movement’s very existence as a social actor, North
American scholars have isolated more delimited characteristics of movements with
the concept.

         Snow and Benford. Snow, Benford and their colleagues argue that a frame is
“an interpretive schemata that simplifies and condenses the ‘world out there’ by
selectively punctuating and encoding objects, situations, events, experiences, and
sequences of actions within one’s present or past environments” (Snow and Benford,
1992: 137). As they have elaborated their framing paradigm, they identify three tasks
faced by social movement organizations: diagnostic framing that defines a condition
as problematic and in need of amelioration as a result of human agency; prognostic
framing that outlines a program for redress of problematic conditions, including
targets, strategies and tactics; and motivational framing that keynotes vocabularies of
motive to activate participation (Hunt, Benford and Snow, 1994). Diagnostic and
prognostic framing impute motives and identities to antagonists or targets of change
while motivational framing involves the construction of motives and identities of
protagonists. All three forms of framing involve the construction and negotiation of
collective identities. As an interactive interpretive process, framing is thought of in
terms of rhetorical strategies working recursively to influence future courses of action
while at the same time reflecting interpretations of previous actions.

        Within the context of these rhetorical framing strategies, most of their effort is
focused on differentiating identity fields for the three types of social mo vement
actors. Although most work on collective identities focuses on protagonists, Hunt et
al. expand the scope of the concept to encompass imputed identities for the major
actors involved in social movements as framed by protagonists. That is, protagonists
construct identities for their adversaries as well as the bystanders they would like to


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recruit or neutralize. Their interesting idea of an identity “field” conveys the
impression of a multiplicity of similarly situated actors, but the concept is
undeveloped.

        Like most students of collective identities (see also Taylor, 1989; Taylor and
Whittier, 1992, 1995), Snow and his colleagues argue that boundary markers and
symbols of continuity are critical for framing of identities. Boundary markers are
meanings that delineate the field of movement protagonists and their supporters from
adversaries by drawing on appropriate cognitive and evaluative cultural materials
interpreted through the lens of relevant events. For the religious, peace and anti-
nuclear move ments they study, Hunt et al. demonstrate convincingly that the
organizations’ tactics, strategies and targets are influenced by collective identities
assumed by or ascribed to the three types of social actors. Because protagonists have a
certain self-conception (ie. identity) some courses of action are open while others are
closed. Similarly, the identities they impute to their adversaries and to bystanders
influence their own choices of tactics and strategies. This emphasis on the strategic
concerns of social movement organizations by Snow and his colleagues parallels
resource mobilization and political process foci on the strategic preoccupations of
social movements, particularly through organizations as actors. Although the
processes Snow et al. describe is recursive, the types of movements they study fail to
include the role of antecedent identities.

        Gamson. Based in a very different research agenda on the media framing of
issues and movements, Gamson (1992b, 1995) also discusses identities in terms of
framing, but is the first of the theorists here to incorporate identities that precede
collective action. He argues that “The locus of collective identity is cultural; it is
manifested through the language and symbols by which it is publicly expressed. We
know a collective identity through the cultural icons and artifacts displayed by those
who embrace it. It is manifested in styles of dress, language, and demeanor” (1992:
60).

         He begins with Snow et al.’s (1986) concept of collective action frames which
he characterizes in terms of injustice frames, agency, and collective identities. The
first refers to the framing of issues addressed by a social movement and the second
and third to the movement as social actor. Of the three, collective identity refers to the
process of defining the “we” who take action in opposition to some “they” who have
different interests or values (1995b: 99). Like Hunt et al., collective identities for
Gamson are adversarial; “we” is partially defined by opposition to some “they” even
when the adversary is a cultural form or social practice.

        While Snow and his colleagues look at the framing of identity fields for
diverse actors, Gamson includes antecedents by differentiating the collective identities
of protagonists in terms of three embedded layers: organization, movement and
solidary group based on social location (1995). The first layer refers to the identity of
movement organizations such as unions, affinity groups, consciousness-raising
groups, national organizations, etc., although any single individual may belong to
more than one organization within a social movement, each with a somewhat different
identity. The second level is the identity of the movement as a totality like the peace
movement, women’s movement, environmental movement, etc. Finally, he refers to
the identity associated with an individual participant’s social location, for example, as


                                                                                         4
worker, woman, African, or all three. The three layers of identity may be differently
valued by an individual. Gamson gives the example of many working-class
Americans who identify with “working people” (their social location) but not with
their union or with a “labor movement” they perceive as historically dated. The most
successful social movements, he argues, provide powerful links between the
participant’s sense of self and all three layers of movement identity.

        Because his focus is on the role of the media, Gamson’s research examines
the imperfect way that media convey the three layers of identity to external audiences
including allies, adversaries, observers and targets of action. Protagonists’ styles of
dress, language, demeanor and modes of discourse provide material for answering the
question, “who are these people,” to Hunt et al.’s general audience, but they are
mediated and transformed in the process. Because Gamson’s (ideally) embedded
identities reflect social location as well as the movement and its organizations, he
comes closer to reflecting the tasks of recognition struggles addressed here. (Melucci
note)

        Della Porta and Diani. In the latest integration of European and America
traditions for studying social movements as process, della Porta and Diani (1999),
validate this cross-fertilization drawing on the U.S. tradition of framing and social
construction and the European tradition emphasizing Melucci’s concept of collective
identities as process or identization. Placing the processes of identity production,
maintenance and revitalization at the center of their social movement analysis, they
follow Hunt et al., in enumerating the same three sets or fields of collective identities
and in arguing that boundary construction is the major mechanism through which
action “constitutes” identities.

         Based on Lofland’s work on movement culture (1995, pp. 192ff), they argue
that identities are developed and sustained through models of behavior, objects and
narratives combined in specific ritual forms as well as artifacts, events and places that
have symbolic significance for sustaining an identity. Identities are formed and
reformed through reconfiguration of these cultural elements, frequently in public, but
in some cases ritually enacted for the internal life of the group. These ritual
experiences are particularly important for casting and recasting individual identitie s
(see also Taylor and Whittier, 1995). Through these processes of meaning
construction, identities activate and reflect relationships of trust and antagonism as
well as providing the major sources of continuity linking experiences and events over
time and space for both individual participants and social movement organizations.

                Having argued that the process of constituting identities is also the
process of collective action through which movements seek to achieve their goals,
della Porta and Diani get to the crux of the matter for present purposes. Namely, how
are antecedent identities incorporated into the identities of social movements? To
start, they argue that “The identity of a movement almost inevitably ends up being
described by its militants as ‘natural’” (1999: 93). Through collective action, people
discover or rediscover their likenesses considered as a result of sharing a condition of
deprivation. Thus, preexisting identities, like nationalism, are reworked for movement
service in terms of both the past and the present through the course of acting together
(pp. 94-95). Although elements of the past (national, ethnic or gender histories, for
example) are incorporated into the new identity, new elements must be added to


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warrant a sense of urgency and collective action. Because identity construction is an
adversarial process, however, antagonists are at pains to demonstrate either the
artificiality of the current construction or to denigrate the original identity. Indeed
scholars such as Anderson (1983) and Hobsbawm (1991) claim that ethno-nationalist
movements draw on myths of a largely non-existent past in the course of “inventing
tradition” (Hobsbawm and Ranger, 1984).

         And finally, della Porta and Diani find that, instead of a single homogenizing
identity, there is instead, a “… multiplicity of identities and allegiances among
militants and movement groups….” (p. 100). Only rarely is a dominant identity able
to integrate all of the others, and even then not in a hierarchical structure. Instead,
“What is cursorily termed ‘movement identity’ is, in reality, largely a contingent
product of negotiations between collective images produced by various actors and
various organizations” (p. 101). This multiplicity leads to what della Porta and Diana
(1999) refer to as the paradoxes of collective identities (p. 86): (1) identities provide a
source of continuity over time while, at the same time, they are subject to constant
redefinition: (2) identities provide participants with an organizing principle fo r
defining allies and adversaries, but these alliance systems are themselves subject to
constant negotiation and redefinition; and (3) as identities are linked with values and
symbols, they seem close to emotional lines of action; yet, many scholars invoke
identities as a way of explaining collective action in rational terms.

         Della Porta and Diani’s integrative social process approach to the study of
social movements brings us full circle back to Melucci and to the centrality that
identities occupy in his work. Not without cause, Tarrow (1998) refers to Alberto
Melucci’s Challelnging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age (1996) as the
“locus classicus” of collective identity theory (p. 224, f 14). For Melucci, more than
any other theorist, the construction of collective identities is the major work of social
movements. In it he sees the major task of explanation: “The empirical unity of a
social movement should be considered as a result rather than a starting point, a fact to
be explained rather than evidence” (1995: 43). To take any other position, he warns, is
to accept a monolithic and metaphysical idea of collective actors.

Identization and Recognition Struggles

        The present volume offers a rich collection of studies illuminating and
extending the preliminary work of social process theorists on collective identities.
While rarely demonstrating the strategic uses of identities by social movement
organizations, they nonetheless, give compelling evidence of the processual nature of
constructing, maintaining and revitalizing identities in the course of social movements
and issue campaigns. Geographically dispersed, they encompass an intriguing set of
studies ranging from the center to the periphery of major industrial democracies. The
diversity of their academic discourse offers perspectives that are alternately historical,
comparative, and transnational. And, despite a central concern with issues of gender
and sexual identities, they encompass multiple social locations that have become both
subject and object of “identization.”

        In using these cases to expand social process theories of collective identities, I
will start with issues on which there has been considerable consensus and move to
concerns that have been brought to light by the unusual opportunity to compare social


                                                                                          6
movement identities across different societies and historic periods. Social process
theorists, as well as the current authors, place at the center of their work processes of
boundary creation and maintenance in adversarial environments, the role of identities
in providing social movement continuity over time and space, and, less frequently, the
role of political institutions in supporting some identities and denying others. Like
most of the social movement literature, the authors here find that boundaries are
sustained and transformed largely through adversarial relationships. However,
previous literature has failed to indicate the lack of autonomy that most social
movements face as they attempt to create identities in adversarial environments. The
current papers address the question of continuity in forms of collective representation,
but due to the complexity of political cultures, coupled with processes of diffusion
from one cultural system to another, they find that discontinuity in identities is
perhaps more likely than continuity when negotiations occur over space as well as
time. Transnational and comparative perspectives point up the interpretive role of
multiple modes of communication. And, finally, many chapters indicate a central role
for formal political institutions in ratifying and/or transforming identity claims that
have seldom received the attention warranted. I select these issues for individual
attention while recognizing that they are closely interconnected.

          Boundary Maintenance/Adversarial Relationships. Most of the chapters here
examine the standing or recognition of some delimited category of people indicating
social location and/or a political identity including that of social movements. For
Ferree, it is “women” in the U.S. and (primarily) the former West Germany, for
Valiente, it is “mothers” against drugs in Spain, for Szalai it is the Roma in Hungary,
for Williams it is the black and migrant women of Europe, and for Klein and Kulick,
it is “travestis” in Brazil, for Hobson, it is differences in the recognition of “women”
as well as “feminists” in Sweden and Ireland. In each case, a politically un-recognized
or mis-recognized identity (in Fraser’s terms) is associated with a powerless or quasi-
powerless position (see Lipsky, 1968) denying relevant actors the capacity to address
critical redistributive needs: of domestic violence, of abortion and reproductive rights
and support, of services for drug-dependent youth, of suffrage and political inclusion,
and of police violence and discrimination. As Lake points out, “Recognition struggles
are provoked by domination, and the perceived nature of the domination shapes and
sharpens the resulting assertion of identity.” That is, the assertion of identity is
coupled with claims for redistribution. Even in Lake’s discussion of fissioning
identities in Australia, conflict over who is authentically Aboriginese involves
material goods like scholarships and foreign travel. The political nature of the failure
of recognition and material (redistributive) consequences is clear.

         And how is a challenging identity constituted? For most authors, it is a
discursive representation with material consequences. Or, as Hobson puts it, these are
struggles based on discursive resources played out on “symbolic terrains.” For
instance: Williams’ discussion of the Black and Migrant Women’s Project Report by
the European Forum of Left Feminists, Hobson’s exploration of Swedish laws on
home care and widow’s pensions, the conventions, campaigns, referenda and
initiatives that characterized multi-ethnic, gender and political struggles in turn-of-
the-century Oklahoma (Sainsbury), the translations and popular magazines in
Hungary discussed by Gal, academic monographs, journal articles and even
newspaper ads in Australia (Lake), Ferree’s account of media discourse on court
decisions and legislation in the U.S. and Germany, and state policies as well as


                                                                                        7
popular myths and legends of the Roma in Hungary (Szalai). For women in Ireland
(Hobson) the boundary making process has been one of continually challenging the
male breadwinner norm that has sacrificed women’ economic and political rights.
Only rarely are the representations of identity dramatized in practices so rich in
symbolism as the travestis’ “scandals” so vividly described by Klein and Kulick.

        Yet, the forms of representation only modestly attest to the lack of control that
protagonists exert over their identities. Williams’ black and migrant women cannot
speak for themselves but must rely, instead, on Left feminists to bring their case
before the European Women’s Lobby who in turn have consultative status to the
European Union. Similarly, the Roma in Hungary have little control over the terms in
which their identity is constituted in public policy or popular culture. And, although
“women” in Germany have standing to be recognized in the national media on
abortion issues, they cannot decide the terms in which the abortion debate takes place
(Ferree). Women in the U.S. have less standing in the press, but more influence over
the terms of debate—as long as it is constructed from familiar discourse on individual
rights. Hungarian translations of Western feminist writing is subject to the capricious
whims of a system of clientelism in terms of what gets translated and from what
perspective. Both native Americans and African Americans in frontier Oklahoma
make the difficult choice of embracing an identity based on standards of “civilization”
established by the dominant Euro-centric culture, making it difficult to point out the
injustices that flow from that culture (Sainsbury). Women in Sweden may have
achieved the ideal society as worker citizens, but identities as wife and mother are
suspect as the basis for public policy (Hobson). Travestis may scandalize clients by
proclaiming their sexual proclivities to the world, but they may also get killed in the
process. Surprisingly, it is these scandalous, but risky, performances of Brazilian
travestis that stand at one end of an autonomy dimension compared, at the other end,
to Roma in Hungary or black, ethnic minority and migrant women in Europe who
have little control over the representation of their identities.

         The lack of autonomy that many protagonists experience in controlling their
identity portrayal is just one reflection of the degree to which they are embedded in
adversarial and mediated relationships of long standing. Identity challenges spring not
only, as expected, from targets of opposition, but frequently from allies and other
actors sharing at least one salient identity. In Hungary, the Roma are at the bottom of
the ethnic hierarchy in terms of recognition and services from the state, but among
themselves, they are also divided in terms of the “struggles and mutual prejudices”
between Beás, Oláh and Romungro groups in terms of who is a real Gypsy.
Travestis, in Brazil, are alternately celebrated for their beauty and vilified for the
ambiguity of their sexual identity, not only by police, politicians, and the Church, but,
to less extent, by gays and lesbians with whom they make common cause on some
issues (Klein and Kulick). Black, migrant and ethnic minority women in Europe not
only lack political standing to speak for themselves, but they fail to receive a
favorable hearing from the white, middle class women who make up the European
Women’s Lobby (Williams). In Australia, claims by white women that they have
been ignored in a male-centered history of their country are challenged by women of
African ancestry whose claims are contested, in turn, by Aboriginal women. Szalai
says for the Hungarian Gypsies, “It is obvious that the striking of a balance, the
representation and institutionalization of the values of identity, are the most pressing
internal affairs facing the Roma community in our time.”


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For Lake, these are the “dialogic implications of recognition struggles” where
categories of identity are destablized and, in the case of feminists, delimited.
Similarly, in rejecting a politics of difference, Gal argues that, feminists must accept a
politics of particularity as opposed to claims of universal inclusiveness. Otherwise,
like Sainsbury, Gal finds that “In every assertion of difference we can find the
implicit homogenization of those newly identified as a category of the different.” In
Oklahoma, the division between “Indian” and “settler” subdivides into “civilized” and
“savage” Indians versus European, African, Asian and Hispanic settlers. Civilized
Indians are differentiated between…… Before the Civil War, African settlers were
further subdivided into free and slave. For the suffrage movement, gender further
divided all of these.

        Yet, the threat of “infinite recursivity” identified by Gal is played out in the
real world of politics and movement mobilization by social actors who see
opportunities and liabilities in claiming or repudiating identities. The challenges
described here by actors who are similarly situated reflects the inevitable overlap of
underrepresented identities among those who have traditionally occupied relatively
powerless social locations. It is rarely the case that mis-representation and
maldistribution are unidimensional in terms of identities. Women, for instance, have
ethnic, religious, nationality, class and political identities as well. For each of these
identities, the individual receives variable degrees of recognition and distributive
rewards. In the past, social movements created identities such as “feminist” or
“socialist” to subsume these diverse sources of meaning for the individual. Despite its
limitations, the identity of the gender neutral worker citizen in Sweden, created by the
labor movement in the 19th century, has been, perhaps, one of the most successful and
flexible in accommodating a multiplicity of changing policy issues and historical
circumstances. Such all-embracing identities have usually succeeded, however, only
when the recognition and distributive rewards on other identities was relatively higher
(such as white, middle class feminists) or, alternatively, when encapsulation of a
movement (Zald and Ash, 1966) precluded action on more than one identity
(terrorists, sects).

        Identity as the Basis of Social Movement Continuity. Theorists such as
Melucci (1987, 1996), della Porta and Diani (2000) have argued that social movement
identities are a major, if not the major source of social movement continuity.
However, many of the studies described here document a remarkable variability in the
negotiation and construction of identities over time and space. Continuity of identities
seems to be associated with polar extremes of success and failure in mobilization.
Hobson’s discussion of the Swedish “worker citizen” is illustrative of successful
mobilization as is Ferree’s description of “women’s” increasing media standing on the
abortion issue in Germany and the United States over a considerably shorter time
span. Women’s on-going mobilizations in both countries around the abortion issue
has enhanced their media standing which serves as a source of continuity reflecting
the movement’s success.

        Hobson’s study of the framing of women’s issues in Sweden demonstrates the
overwhelming success of the early framing of identities legitimated in terms of class
by the labor movement of the late 19th century. Looking at women’s political
positioning over the course of the 20th century, she shows the “path dependent” nature


                                                                                         9
of identity framing for women within this political discourse. After gaining suffrage
in 1920, most women in Sweden were assimilated into the Social Democratic Party on
the basis of a gender neutrality that had characterized the discourse of the early labor
movement and continued throughout most of the century despite the fact that many
issues of concern to women could not be accommodated. Recent repudiation of
widow’s pensions and allowances for women to care for their own children in the
home have continued to validate a universal, class-based identity for women, like
men, as workers, parents and citizens. Contemporary feminist mobilizations have
served to increase women’s political role in the government and the party, but it has
been difficult to address the concerns of immigrant women, women’s unpaid work
and their low pay in service occupations. It would appear that electoral success, which
institutionalizes adversarial relationships, can serve to provide the continuity of a
social movement identity over the long term.

        The second set of issues involves a more traditional set of concerns, the
difficulties in creating, maintaining, and defending a social movement identity over
time and space in a hostile environment and from external challenges. Gal, for
instance, describes the difficulties of creating a “feminist” identity in Central East
Europe after the end of state socialism. She points out how politically marginal
feminists responded to charges of “alien” or “foreign” influences by searching for
origins in the history of late 19th and early 20th century Hungary. Unfortunately for
contemporary Hungarian feminists, these historical excavations have unearthed a
further charge of “alien” as early suffrage campaigns for women have been linked to
attempts to win the vote for ethnic minorities. Even the identity of “mothers,” which
served as the basis for mobilization in Spain, underwent continual challenge as they
sought to support their drug-dependent children. At first they banded together for
support and then to transfer some of their respectability as mothers to their children
who were characterized as criminals. As Valiente describes it, their “standing” was
questioned again by university professionals who challenged their expertise in treating
drug dependency.



        First, identities are inevitably linked to political programs that represent
experiences and interests that serve some people better than others within the category
embraced. The discussion above on the contested nature of boundaries indicates just
how difficult it is to maintain the authenticity of a movement identity over time
against challenges from within the category (woman, homosexual). These internal
challenges to authenticity, so richly described in the chapters here, deserve a more
prominent place in social movement theories.

        Paradoxically, identities of victimized categories of people seem to offer the
most continuity in the studies here as others generate social movements on their
behalf. The Roma in Hungary, described by Szalai, are the objects of others
mobilization and policy making as are the black and migrant women on whose behalf
Left feminist lobby the European Union (Williams). While movement theorists have
previously indicated the importance of identity construction for protagonists,
antagonists, and bystander publics, the papers here indicate that the objects of social
movements’ attentions or their beneficiaries also have social identities that should be
considered.


                                                                                     10
Political Context and the Construction of Identities. The role of political
institutions in social movement theory has been largely centered on the role of states,
political parties, and, rarely, supra- national entities in opening and closing political
opportunities (Tilly, 1978; McAdam, 1982; Tarrow, 1994, 1998; McAdam, McCarthy
and Zald,1996). In a critique published in the mid-1990s, Gamson and Meyer argue
that “political opportunity” had become a sponge concept soaking up virtually every
aspect of the social movement environment with the result that it ultimately explained
nothing at all (1996). For present purposes, the importance of their critique is its
emphasis on the fact that “Political opportunities are subject to framing processes and
are often the source of internal movement disagreements about appropriate action
strategies” (p. 276). Yet, in their rendering of political opportunity structures as
ranging from volatile to stable and embracing cultural elements from myths and
narratives to issue cultures and media frames, they neglect the role of collective
identities. While indicating that movements embrace a range of actors, they fail to
note that it is collective identities that distinguish these actors. While they embrace
process approaches to political opportunity, they fail to recognize the centrality of
negotiating collective identities. The current volume helps to address these omissions.
Almost half of the chapters seek to articulate the role of political institutions in the
negotiation of collective identities.

        At a time when conflict still rages between Catholic and Protestant in Northern
Ireland, Palestinian and Israeli and in the Middle East, Pakistani and Indian in
Kashmir, it is obvious that categorical identities provide a major line of contestation
within and between states. As well, supra-national political entities are mirrored by
supra-national identity movements ranging from feminists to terrorists. It is also
obvious that states and their policies reflect political configurations elevating some
identities and repressing others. Policies of subordination and oppression are reflected
in the long-term victimization of peoples because of their identities. Domestic and
foreign policies of national and emerging supra- national political ent ities influence the
forms of identity victimization as well as potential for mobilization. Sainsbury’s study
of the Oklahoma suffrage movement a century ago, surprisingly, illustrates the degree
to which local recognition struggles and movement mobilizatio ns have long been
influenced by the imperatives of national politics.

         Central Europe has experienced the collapse of one supra- national political
configuration, state socialism, that had dominated the region since the end of World
War II and now faces the increasing influence of another supra-national entity in the
European Union. The aftermath of state socialism in Central Eastern Europe has
opened those regions to some influence from Western Europe regarding the
democratic treatment of identity groups, but the chapters here indicate the moderation
of that influence by political configurations arising from both the immediate and the
distant past. Gal, for instance, describes a political arena that has been masculinized in
Hungary as an assertion against the discredited emphasis of state socialism on
“equality” and “liberation,” leaving no political space for women’s mobilization as
women. The opening of political opportunities for men with the end of state socialism
has brought with it a closing of available identities for women, and thus, of
opportunities. Although non-governmental organizations (NGOs) representing
western governments provide a space where feminist discourse and women’s
participation is encouraged, Gal finds that the language of equality is discredited as


                                                                                        11
alien and foreign. The very real problems women face of domestic violence,
pornography and sexual harassment must be addressed without recourse to feminist
discourse or mobilization in that guise.

        In further consideration of the aftermath of state socialism in Hungary, Szalai
describes how Hungary’s recent accession to the European Council has led to a policy
on minorities designed to satisfy Western legal norms, but at the same time has set
precedents that will advantage the larger number of ethnic Hungarians living beyond
state borders. Because the national minorities in Hungary are quite small and well
assimilated and the largest minority, the Gypsies, are poorly organized, the Minority
Law of 1993 could afford to be “relatively generous” in determination of minority
entitlements. Ethnic Hungarians living beyond the borders could then “bring to the
table” these precedents, perhaps even gaining political representation in Romania,
Slovakia, the Ukraine and, even, Yugoslavia. As Szalai describes the symbolic
politics of the new law, it is not surprising that the diaspora community of Roma was
considered least of all in its creation, and its ‘entitlements’ are of little use to them. In
this political context, with increasing evidence of segregation and discrimination, and
their poor internal organization, Roma are increasingly engaged in sporadic, low-level
mobilizations like radical self-defense, protest campaigns, calls for statutory
intervention, and extremist attacks “with a touch of “Robin Hoodism.” Her call for a
Hungarian social science that could provide a non-patronizing rationale for supporting
the Roma might serve as the basis for a broader social movement.

        The role of the European Union in providing a forum for the greater
recognition of women’s rights has provided new political opportunities as well as a
new focal point for women’s mobilizations. This is apparent in Williams’ discussion
of mobilizations on behalf of black and migrant women in Europe and Hobson’s
treatment of assistance that women in the Republic of Ireland have received from the
conditions set down for EU membership. For black and migrant women, the
intercession of Left women with the Women’s Lobby of the EU offered political
opportunities that were not available in member states. For Irish women, the
monolithic hold of the Catholic Church and state that encode essential gender
differences in famialism and nationalism was to some extent broken when criteria for
EU membership forced changes in rights to work in 1973. These changes could build
on the increasing mobilization of Irish women that was accelerated by a 1967 United
Nations’ directive to NGOs to create official national organizations to lobby
governments for gender equality. By 1995, the resulting Irish Council for the Status of
Women had become the official National Women’s Council of Ireland, representing
over eighty women’s organizations.

        Despite their increasing importance in influencing political opportunities for
recognition struggles, supra- national political entities have not taken the place of
national level politics. Two of the chapters here point to different phases in the
struggle to establish what Hobson calls the cultural coding of citizenship or collective
identities as they become embedded in political policies and culture. Hobson’s chapter
on the long-term hegemony of gender neutral framing by the Swedish labor
movement that persisted throughout much of the twentieth century demonstrates the
power of identities created by successful social movements. In the Swedish case, this
was an identity based on the worker-citizen which, over the course of the century,
served as the framework for recognition struggles around gender issues. Thus, public


                                                                                          12
policy gradually incorporated gender differences so that women won the right to vote,
to equal responsibility with their husbands for the care and support of their children,
to secondary schooling, to work in the civil service and to income maintenance when
fathers failed to pay their support. In what she terms “path dependency” this
channeling of the relationship between gender and citizenship created a false
universalism in which women were incorporated into the polity on the same basis as
men. Path dependency or an overdetermined set of political identities that failed to
acknowledge disparities in men’s and women’s life course and choices led to the
threat of a separate women’s party by the end of the century.

        While the success of the Swedish labor movement’s universalistic model of
the worker-parent-citizen illustrates the way in which a hegemonic identity shaped
recognition struggles for much of the twentieth century, Sainsbury’s study of the
suffrage movement in Oklahoma indicates how a multiplicity of recognition struggles
were influenced by the cha nging opportunities defined by national politics: a civil war
in which native Americans made the mistake of siding with the South; the punishing
aftermath of that choice for native Americans and former slaves; party alignments
defined by the war; shifting criteria for citizenship and for statehood; federal
definitions of individual as opposed to communal property rights; and constitutional
tolerance for state segregation laws. Despite this largely negative political context, the
variety of recognition struggles provided opportunities in which the only state with a
slave and confederate legacy granted full suffrage to women prior to passage of the
federal constitutional amendment. A series of territorial and state conventions served
to mobilize women among na tive Americans, blacks, socialists, populists, and Euro-
American settlers. With the largest socialist vote in the U.S., Oklahoma early enacted
progressive legislation legalizing the referendum and initiative which served as the
means by which women were gradually able to increase the margin of support for
suffrage.

Conclusions

          McAdam, Tarrow and Tilly (2001) argue in their work on contentious politics
that there is a fine line at most between social movements and the politics of everyday
life. It is within the context of social movements, however, that the indeterminacy of
culturally embedded identities is heightened and new possibilities are explored. The
centrality of processes of negotiating and constructing identities that lie at the heart of
contemporary studies of collective action tends to emphasizes fluidity and openness .
Yet, these processes occur within contexts of enduring political cultures as well as
varying political opportunities. Although there are shades of meaning and
interpretation that theoretically open countless avenues of collective action, the
historical continuities attached to these identities (some of very short duration)
preclude an infinite variety of conceivable actions. Their approach which emphasizes
universal processes of contention across the modern period is contrasted with
Melucci’s continuing assertion (1996) that the contemporary period calls forth an
unusually strong emphasis on the negotiation, construction and deployment of
collective identities, in short, recognitio n struggles. It is his claim that their agents
seek recognition for identities as much as achievement of material and symbolic
objects.




                                                                                        13
This treasury of case studies provide an impressive legacy for the continuing
study of collective identities. Like Melucci, they define recognition struggles as a
process. Like Melucci, they richly illustrate that a collective identity is not a “thing;”
it is a set of activities. Yet, also like della Porta and Diani, Gamson, Snow, Benford,
Taylor, Whittier and their collaborators, they repeatedly describe a set of recurring
activities of negotiation and construction of boundaries that are consequential for
redistribution in contexts strongly influenced by national and supra-national politics.
So central are collective identities to social movements that these activities can take
over other processes of networking, solidarity, strategic planning in a field of
variously situated actors. Melucci’s conceptual solution is in referencing a verb,
identization, by which he refers to “this increasingly self-reflexive and constructed
manner in which contemporary collective actors tend to define themselves… Within
the boundaries of our language, it is a rough and provocative acknowledgment of a
qualitative leap in the present forms of collective action and also a call for an
equivalent leap in our cognitive tools” 1995: 51).

         None of these theorists or the papers here meet Melucci’s call for recasting the
entire study of social movements. He continued to argue through his last publications
that current approaches are too top down, too political, and too superficial. By taking
the movement at its word that it is a legitimate actor, he argues, the analyst ignores the
most important questions related to the negotiation and construction of social actors.
While not embracing Melucci’s entire agenda, the present volume points us in three
new directions based on their extended exploration of the discursive implications of
recognition struggles: the centrality of adversarial relationships in the negotiation and
construction of identities, and, thus, the lack of autonomy that most collective actors
face in being understood in thee way they understand themselves; the potential of
identities as a source of continuity for movements over time and space, yet the highly
contingent nature of meanings ascribed to identities in different times and places; and,
finally, the often ignored roles of states and their agents in reinforcing or suppressing
identities in conjunction with their more familiar role in opening and closing political
opportunities. Each of these themes moves the struggles for collective recognition
closer to the center of social movement theory. Melucci would have been pleased.




                                                                                         14
REFERENCES

Della Porta, Donatella and Mario Diani. 1999. Social Movements: An Introduction
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Ferree, Myra Marx and Frederick Miller. 1985. Mobilization and Meaning: Toward
an
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Gamson, William A. 1992a. “The Social Psychology of Collective Action.” Pp. 53-76
in
     Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory.
     New Haven: Yale University Press.

_______________. 1992b. Talking Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.

_______________. 1995. Constructing Social Protest. Pp. 85-106 in Hank Johnston
and
      Bert Klandermans, eds. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis:
University
      of Minnesota Press.

Gamson, William A., Bruce Fireman, and Steven Rytina. 1982. Encounters with
Unjust
       Authority. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press.

Gamson, William A. and David S. Meyer. 1996. Framing Political Opportunity. Pp.
275-
     290 in McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social
     Movements. Cambridge University Press.

Goffman, Ervin. 1974. Frame Analysis. An Essay on the Organization of Experience.
      Boston: Northeastern University Press.

Hunt, Scott A., Robert D. Benford, and David A. Snow. 1994. Identity Fields:
Framing
       Processes and the Social Construction of Movement Identities. Pp. 185-206 in
       Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph Gusfield, eds. New Social
       Movements: From Ideology to Identity. Philadelphia: Temple University
       Press.

Johnston, Hank and Bert Klandermans, eds. 1995. Social Movements and Culture.
       Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Klandermans, Bert. 1984. Mobilization and Participation: social Psychological
      Expansions of Resource Mobilization Theory. American Sociological Review
      49: 583-600.



                                                                                  15
McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency,
     1930-1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

McAdam, Doug, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly. 2001. Contentious Politics. New
     York: Cambridge University Press.

McAdam, Doug, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald, eds. 1996. Comparative
Perspectives
       On Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and
       Cultural Framing. New York: Cambridge University Press.

McCarthy, John and Mayer Zald. 1973. The Trends of Social Movements in America:
      Professionalization and Resource Mobilization. Morristown, NJ: General
      Learning Press.

_______________. 1977. Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A
      Partial Theory. American Journal of Sociology 82: 1212-41.

McPhail, Clark. 1991. The Myth of the Madding Crowd. New York: Aldine de
Gruyter.

Melucci, Alberto. 1985. The Symbolic Challenge of Contemporary Movements.
Social
       Research 52: 789-816.

_______________. 1989. Nomads of the Present. London: Hutchinson Radius.
????????

_______________. 1995. The Process of Collective Identity. Pp. 41-63 in Hank
Johnston
       and Bert Klandermans, eds. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis:
       University of Minnesota Press.

_______________. 1996. Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information
Age.
      Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Morris, Aldon and Carol Mueller, eds. 1992. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory.
       New Haven: Yale University Press.

Olson, Marcur. 1963. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.

Pizzorno, Alessandro. 1978. Political Exchange and Collective Identity in Industrial
       Conflict. Pp. 277-98 in C. Crouch and Alessandro. Pizzorno eds., The
       Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western Europe. New York: Holmes &
Meier.

Snow, David A., Burke E. Rochford, Steven Worden and Robert Benford. 1986.
Frame



                                                                                   16
Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation.
American
      Sociological Review 51: 464-81.

Snow, David A. and Robert D. Benford. 1992. Master Frames and Cycles of Protest.
      Pp. 133-155 in Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social
      Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Tarrow, Sidney. 1998. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action,
and
         Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. Second edition. (First
edition,
         1994).

Taylor, Verta. 1989. Social Movement Continuity: The Women’s Movement in
        Abeyance. American Sociological Review 54: 761-75.

Taylor, Verta and Nancy Whittier. 1992. Collective Identity in Social Movement
       Communities: Lesbian Feminist Mobilization.” Pp. 104-129 in Aldon Morris
and
       Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale
       University Press.

_______________. 1995. Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture: The
      Culture of the Women’s Movement. Pp. 163- 187 in Hank Johnston and Bert
      Klandermans, Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of
      Minnesota Press.

Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA:Addison-
Wesley.

Touraine, Alain. 1981. The Voice and the Eye. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.




                                                                                  17
18

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Recognition Struggles and Process Theories of Social Movements - Carol Mueller

  • 1. Recognition Struggles and Process Theories of Social Movements Carol Mueller Arizona State University West Paper prepared for the workshop on “Recognition Struggles” organized by Barbara Hobson at the University of Stockholm. Summer, 2001. Introduction The present collection offers an unusual opportunity to examine process theories of social movements in light of a rich diversity of chapters on “recognition struggles.” The present theorizing of recognition struggles represent sustained
  • 2. attention to one of the central concerns of social movement theory: the frequently adversarial process of gaining and losing recognition for identities in the course of a wide range of collective actions. That most of the “action” recorded here shows the intersection of the discursive and the political serves to expand social process theories of social movements further in the incorporation of identity framing and construction. Thus, the concept of collective identities represents a theoretical bridge between the two forms of theorizing. The chapters encompass a diversity of mobilizations that occur as identities become the objects as well as the means of struggle. In the language of social movement process theories, recognition struggles concern the intersection of collective identities and the field of collective action. Yet, social movement theory has had far more to say about “struggles” (collective action/ contentious politics) than how they are aided or hindered by recognition of the identities of participants, beneficiaries, interested bystanders and adversaries. Although most theorists will agree that the framing of identities is a necessary but potentially hazardous task for any social movement, there is considerable disagreement about the degree to which existing, “natural” or inherited identities form the basis of mobilization, solidarity and continuity for struggles over time much less recent concerns about collective identities as the object of struggle. Current social movement theory has not resolved the issue of whether the role of collective identities in a process of mobilization is one of rediscovery of traits suppressed by a system of cultural and political domination or is it primarily the result of a creative process based in the ongoing interpretive work of the movement (della Porta and Diani, 1999: 94). Most likely, it is both, but how much of each and under what circumstances? This lack of resolution does not imply that collective identities have not figured in contemporary theorizing, but that there is not a strong consensus from which to approach the contributions in the present volume. This is, to some extent, a result of the particular way in which issues of identity entered contemporary process theories of social movements. European scholars were the first to insist on the centrality of collective identities to the study of social movements (Pizzorno, 1978; Touraine 1981; Melucci 1985, 1989, 1995, 1996), although, among contemporary theorists, Tilly’s concept of “catnet” (1978) had recognized the foundation of collective action in social networks characterized by categorical meanings. In the 1970s and 1980s most North American students of social movements had embraced the assumptions of Olson’s (1963) rational actor model and cast off questions of meaning and symbolism as dangerously associated with the irrational assumptions embedded in mass society and much of collective behavior theory (McPhail, 1996). Preoccupied with questions of why social movements succeed or fail, they developed resource mobilization (McCarthy and Zald, 1973, 1977) and political opportunity paradigms (McAdam, 1982; Tarrow, 1989). The European challenge, combined with an increasingly post-modern academic environment, moved North Americans toward a “cultural turn” (Morris and Mueller, 1992; Larana, Johnston and Gusfield, 1994; Johnston and Klandermans, 1995) which has resulted in increasingly integrated approaches to the studies of social movements (della Porta and Diani, 1999; McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, forthcoming). The “discovery” of collective identities by U.S. theorists proceeded slowly from its origins in European “new social movement theory”. It has been introduced into North American work through local traditions in social psychology, symbolic 1
  • 3. interactionism, and framing, broadly conceived as social construction. These approaches place a major emphasis on systems of meaning negotiated between the individual and various collective levels of social movements. They examine the constructio n of identities as one of the ongoing processes of collective action. The focus has been primarily on collective identities generated through collective action rather than the great variety of antecedent identities such as gender, ethnicity, nation, religion, and/or class. Like its European predecessors in new social movement theory, the U.S. approach has focused almost exclusively on identities created in toto within social movements. With the increasing attention to mobilizations organized around antecedent identities in the last ten years, theorizing has begun to reflect more systematically the problematics of recognition struggles as they are understood in the present volume. While incorporating much of social constructionism, more recent work reflects additional issues that arise from mobilizations based on identities that have at least some portion of their origins in the history, myths, symbols, and collective memories associated with antecedent social locations. My purpose here is to focus on the issues raised by four of the major theorists (or theory teams) working on issues of collective identity in Europe and North America and examine the way in which their issues are expanded by the studies in this volume Identization and the Construction Social Movement Identities Alberto Melucci. Of the Europeans working on an interpretation of contemporary social movements through collective identities, Alberto Melucci has been the most influential in bringing the concept to international attention and the most persistent in insisting on the “newness” of these movements (1989, 1996). The two are closely interconnected. Based on his field theoretic approach to research in Italy, Melucci’s concept of collective identities is all encompassing. For him, the collective identity is the movement and the movement itself is process. The process is that of becoming a social actor, of becoming a playaer on the stage of world history. At one point, he recommends that the process be indicated by the verb, identization rather than the noun (1995: ). The verb represents the process.While not denying that movements operate in an environment of constraints and resources, he is most impressed by the indeterminacy of the movement as a social actor that lacks the coherence its ideologues and antagonists attribute to it. His understanding of collective identity as a verb reflects this highly contingent status. The identity consists of the contingent definitions of means, ends and fields of action that exist in a state of tension arising from a system of social relationships as well as systems of meaning. Tensions are accentuated in a time of crisis when the unity of the actor is tested and people fight not only for concrete and symbolic objects, but also for “the possibility of recognizing themselves and being recognized as subjects of their action” (1995: 48). Through collective identities, social actors recognize each other, are recognized by others, set boundaries, determine criteria for membership, select members and provide continuity over time. Melucci has also argued for over twenty years that because these movements are not based in traditional identities of class or ethnicity, but rest on opposition to new forms of domination, the processes of collective identities are uniquely important and constitute (if successful) major outcomes of social movements by creating new social actors. Contending that contemporary movements mark a historical departure in 2
  • 4. the extent to which they target civil society, make claims that are largely directed toward cultural systems, and recruit adherents from constituencies where social movement participation lacks the solidarity of working class or ethnic communities, he takes issue with resource mobilization and political process approaches that ignore the expressive outcomes of social movements, most notably the creation of viable collective identities. Systematic attention to collective identities came to North America largely through Melucci’s work, stimulated by Jean Cohen’s special issue of Social Research in 1985. Although many have disagreed about the “newness” of contemporary movements, his work has been widely appreciated in both Europe and the United States. Attention to the processes by which identities are created through collective action marked a major departure in the mid-1980s. Despite the major preoccupation of U.S. social movement scholars with resource mobilization and political process issues during the 1970s and early 1980s, both social psychologists and scholars from symbolic interaction traditions were adapting Ervin Goffman’s (1974) Frame Analysis to help understand how participants in social movements create meanings to interpret their situation (see particularly, Gamson, et al. 1982; Klandermans, 1984; Ferree and Miller, 1985; Snow, et al. 1986). Soon this approach was joined with the emerging interest in collective identities. The two principle scholarly groups here are David Snow, Robert Benford and their colleagues concerned with the framing tasks faced by social movement organizations and Gamson and his colleagues working on media framing of social movements and issue campaigns. Where Melucci’s identization encompasses the movement’s very existence as a social actor, North American scholars have isolated more delimited characteristics of movements with the concept. Snow and Benford. Snow, Benford and their colleagues argue that a frame is “an interpretive schemata that simplifies and condenses the ‘world out there’ by selectively punctuating and encoding objects, situations, events, experiences, and sequences of actions within one’s present or past environments” (Snow and Benford, 1992: 137). As they have elaborated their framing paradigm, they identify three tasks faced by social movement organizations: diagnostic framing that defines a condition as problematic and in need of amelioration as a result of human agency; prognostic framing that outlines a program for redress of problematic conditions, including targets, strategies and tactics; and motivational framing that keynotes vocabularies of motive to activate participation (Hunt, Benford and Snow, 1994). Diagnostic and prognostic framing impute motives and identities to antagonists or targets of change while motivational framing involves the construction of motives and identities of protagonists. All three forms of framing involve the construction and negotiation of collective identities. As an interactive interpretive process, framing is thought of in terms of rhetorical strategies working recursively to influence future courses of action while at the same time reflecting interpretations of previous actions. Within the context of these rhetorical framing strategies, most of their effort is focused on differentiating identity fields for the three types of social mo vement actors. Although most work on collective identities focuses on protagonists, Hunt et al. expand the scope of the concept to encompass imputed identities for the major actors involved in social movements as framed by protagonists. That is, protagonists construct identities for their adversaries as well as the bystanders they would like to 3
  • 5. recruit or neutralize. Their interesting idea of an identity “field” conveys the impression of a multiplicity of similarly situated actors, but the concept is undeveloped. Like most students of collective identities (see also Taylor, 1989; Taylor and Whittier, 1992, 1995), Snow and his colleagues argue that boundary markers and symbols of continuity are critical for framing of identities. Boundary markers are meanings that delineate the field of movement protagonists and their supporters from adversaries by drawing on appropriate cognitive and evaluative cultural materials interpreted through the lens of relevant events. For the religious, peace and anti- nuclear move ments they study, Hunt et al. demonstrate convincingly that the organizations’ tactics, strategies and targets are influenced by collective identities assumed by or ascribed to the three types of social actors. Because protagonists have a certain self-conception (ie. identity) some courses of action are open while others are closed. Similarly, the identities they impute to their adversaries and to bystanders influence their own choices of tactics and strategies. This emphasis on the strategic concerns of social movement organizations by Snow and his colleagues parallels resource mobilization and political process foci on the strategic preoccupations of social movements, particularly through organizations as actors. Although the processes Snow et al. describe is recursive, the types of movements they study fail to include the role of antecedent identities. Gamson. Based in a very different research agenda on the media framing of issues and movements, Gamson (1992b, 1995) also discusses identities in terms of framing, but is the first of the theorists here to incorporate identities that precede collective action. He argues that “The locus of collective identity is cultural; it is manifested through the language and symbols by which it is publicly expressed. We know a collective identity through the cultural icons and artifacts displayed by those who embrace it. It is manifested in styles of dress, language, and demeanor” (1992: 60). He begins with Snow et al.’s (1986) concept of collective action frames which he characterizes in terms of injustice frames, agency, and collective identities. The first refers to the framing of issues addressed by a social movement and the second and third to the movement as social actor. Of the three, collective identity refers to the process of defining the “we” who take action in opposition to some “they” who have different interests or values (1995b: 99). Like Hunt et al., collective identities for Gamson are adversarial; “we” is partially defined by opposition to some “they” even when the adversary is a cultural form or social practice. While Snow and his colleagues look at the framing of identity fields for diverse actors, Gamson includes antecedents by differentiating the collective identities of protagonists in terms of three embedded layers: organization, movement and solidary group based on social location (1995). The first layer refers to the identity of movement organizations such as unions, affinity groups, consciousness-raising groups, national organizations, etc., although any single individual may belong to more than one organization within a social movement, each with a somewhat different identity. The second level is the identity of the movement as a totality like the peace movement, women’s movement, environmental movement, etc. Finally, he refers to the identity associated with an individual participant’s social location, for example, as 4
  • 6. worker, woman, African, or all three. The three layers of identity may be differently valued by an individual. Gamson gives the example of many working-class Americans who identify with “working people” (their social location) but not with their union or with a “labor movement” they perceive as historically dated. The most successful social movements, he argues, provide powerful links between the participant’s sense of self and all three layers of movement identity. Because his focus is on the role of the media, Gamson’s research examines the imperfect way that media convey the three layers of identity to external audiences including allies, adversaries, observers and targets of action. Protagonists’ styles of dress, language, demeanor and modes of discourse provide material for answering the question, “who are these people,” to Hunt et al.’s general audience, but they are mediated and transformed in the process. Because Gamson’s (ideally) embedded identities reflect social location as well as the movement and its organizations, he comes closer to reflecting the tasks of recognition struggles addressed here. (Melucci note) Della Porta and Diani. In the latest integration of European and America traditions for studying social movements as process, della Porta and Diani (1999), validate this cross-fertilization drawing on the U.S. tradition of framing and social construction and the European tradition emphasizing Melucci’s concept of collective identities as process or identization. Placing the processes of identity production, maintenance and revitalization at the center of their social movement analysis, they follow Hunt et al., in enumerating the same three sets or fields of collective identities and in arguing that boundary construction is the major mechanism through which action “constitutes” identities. Based on Lofland’s work on movement culture (1995, pp. 192ff), they argue that identities are developed and sustained through models of behavior, objects and narratives combined in specific ritual forms as well as artifacts, events and places that have symbolic significance for sustaining an identity. Identities are formed and reformed through reconfiguration of these cultural elements, frequently in public, but in some cases ritually enacted for the internal life of the group. These ritual experiences are particularly important for casting and recasting individual identitie s (see also Taylor and Whittier, 1995). Through these processes of meaning construction, identities activate and reflect relationships of trust and antagonism as well as providing the major sources of continuity linking experiences and events over time and space for both individual participants and social movement organizations. Having argued that the process of constituting identities is also the process of collective action through which movements seek to achieve their goals, della Porta and Diani get to the crux of the matter for present purposes. Namely, how are antecedent identities incorporated into the identities of social movements? To start, they argue that “The identity of a movement almost inevitably ends up being described by its militants as ‘natural’” (1999: 93). Through collective action, people discover or rediscover their likenesses considered as a result of sharing a condition of deprivation. Thus, preexisting identities, like nationalism, are reworked for movement service in terms of both the past and the present through the course of acting together (pp. 94-95). Although elements of the past (national, ethnic or gender histories, for example) are incorporated into the new identity, new elements must be added to 5
  • 7. warrant a sense of urgency and collective action. Because identity construction is an adversarial process, however, antagonists are at pains to demonstrate either the artificiality of the current construction or to denigrate the original identity. Indeed scholars such as Anderson (1983) and Hobsbawm (1991) claim that ethno-nationalist movements draw on myths of a largely non-existent past in the course of “inventing tradition” (Hobsbawm and Ranger, 1984). And finally, della Porta and Diani find that, instead of a single homogenizing identity, there is instead, a “… multiplicity of identities and allegiances among militants and movement groups….” (p. 100). Only rarely is a dominant identity able to integrate all of the others, and even then not in a hierarchical structure. Instead, “What is cursorily termed ‘movement identity’ is, in reality, largely a contingent product of negotiations between collective images produced by various actors and various organizations” (p. 101). This multiplicity leads to what della Porta and Diana (1999) refer to as the paradoxes of collective identities (p. 86): (1) identities provide a source of continuity over time while, at the same time, they are subject to constant redefinition: (2) identities provide participants with an organizing principle fo r defining allies and adversaries, but these alliance systems are themselves subject to constant negotiation and redefinition; and (3) as identities are linked with values and symbols, they seem close to emotional lines of action; yet, many scholars invoke identities as a way of explaining collective action in rational terms. Della Porta and Diani’s integrative social process approach to the study of social movements brings us full circle back to Melucci and to the centrality that identities occupy in his work. Not without cause, Tarrow (1998) refers to Alberto Melucci’s Challelnging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age (1996) as the “locus classicus” of collective identity theory (p. 224, f 14). For Melucci, more than any other theorist, the construction of collective identities is the major work of social movements. In it he sees the major task of explanation: “The empirical unity of a social movement should be considered as a result rather than a starting point, a fact to be explained rather than evidence” (1995: 43). To take any other position, he warns, is to accept a monolithic and metaphysical idea of collective actors. Identization and Recognition Struggles The present volume offers a rich collection of studies illuminating and extending the preliminary work of social process theorists on collective identities. While rarely demonstrating the strategic uses of identities by social movement organizations, they nonetheless, give compelling evidence of the processual nature of constructing, maintaining and revitalizing identities in the course of social movements and issue campaigns. Geographically dispersed, they encompass an intriguing set of studies ranging from the center to the periphery of major industrial democracies. The diversity of their academic discourse offers perspectives that are alternately historical, comparative, and transnational. And, despite a central concern with issues of gender and sexual identities, they encompass multiple social locations that have become both subject and object of “identization.” In using these cases to expand social process theories of collective identities, I will start with issues on which there has been considerable consensus and move to concerns that have been brought to light by the unusual opportunity to compare social 6
  • 8. movement identities across different societies and historic periods. Social process theorists, as well as the current authors, place at the center of their work processes of boundary creation and maintenance in adversarial environments, the role of identities in providing social movement continuity over time and space, and, less frequently, the role of political institutions in supporting some identities and denying others. Like most of the social movement literature, the authors here find that boundaries are sustained and transformed largely through adversarial relationships. However, previous literature has failed to indicate the lack of autonomy that most social movements face as they attempt to create identities in adversarial environments. The current papers address the question of continuity in forms of collective representation, but due to the complexity of political cultures, coupled with processes of diffusion from one cultural system to another, they find that discontinuity in identities is perhaps more likely than continuity when negotiations occur over space as well as time. Transnational and comparative perspectives point up the interpretive role of multiple modes of communication. And, finally, many chapters indicate a central role for formal political institutions in ratifying and/or transforming identity claims that have seldom received the attention warranted. I select these issues for individual attention while recognizing that they are closely interconnected. Boundary Maintenance/Adversarial Relationships. Most of the chapters here examine the standing or recognition of some delimited category of people indicating social location and/or a political identity including that of social movements. For Ferree, it is “women” in the U.S. and (primarily) the former West Germany, for Valiente, it is “mothers” against drugs in Spain, for Szalai it is the Roma in Hungary, for Williams it is the black and migrant women of Europe, and for Klein and Kulick, it is “travestis” in Brazil, for Hobson, it is differences in the recognition of “women” as well as “feminists” in Sweden and Ireland. In each case, a politically un-recognized or mis-recognized identity (in Fraser’s terms) is associated with a powerless or quasi- powerless position (see Lipsky, 1968) denying relevant actors the capacity to address critical redistributive needs: of domestic violence, of abortion and reproductive rights and support, of services for drug-dependent youth, of suffrage and political inclusion, and of police violence and discrimination. As Lake points out, “Recognition struggles are provoked by domination, and the perceived nature of the domination shapes and sharpens the resulting assertion of identity.” That is, the assertion of identity is coupled with claims for redistribution. Even in Lake’s discussion of fissioning identities in Australia, conflict over who is authentically Aboriginese involves material goods like scholarships and foreign travel. The political nature of the failure of recognition and material (redistributive) consequences is clear. And how is a challenging identity constituted? For most authors, it is a discursive representation with material consequences. Or, as Hobson puts it, these are struggles based on discursive resources played out on “symbolic terrains.” For instance: Williams’ discussion of the Black and Migrant Women’s Project Report by the European Forum of Left Feminists, Hobson’s exploration of Swedish laws on home care and widow’s pensions, the conventions, campaigns, referenda and initiatives that characterized multi-ethnic, gender and political struggles in turn-of- the-century Oklahoma (Sainsbury), the translations and popular magazines in Hungary discussed by Gal, academic monographs, journal articles and even newspaper ads in Australia (Lake), Ferree’s account of media discourse on court decisions and legislation in the U.S. and Germany, and state policies as well as 7
  • 9. popular myths and legends of the Roma in Hungary (Szalai). For women in Ireland (Hobson) the boundary making process has been one of continually challenging the male breadwinner norm that has sacrificed women’ economic and political rights. Only rarely are the representations of identity dramatized in practices so rich in symbolism as the travestis’ “scandals” so vividly described by Klein and Kulick. Yet, the forms of representation only modestly attest to the lack of control that protagonists exert over their identities. Williams’ black and migrant women cannot speak for themselves but must rely, instead, on Left feminists to bring their case before the European Women’s Lobby who in turn have consultative status to the European Union. Similarly, the Roma in Hungary have little control over the terms in which their identity is constituted in public policy or popular culture. And, although “women” in Germany have standing to be recognized in the national media on abortion issues, they cannot decide the terms in which the abortion debate takes place (Ferree). Women in the U.S. have less standing in the press, but more influence over the terms of debate—as long as it is constructed from familiar discourse on individual rights. Hungarian translations of Western feminist writing is subject to the capricious whims of a system of clientelism in terms of what gets translated and from what perspective. Both native Americans and African Americans in frontier Oklahoma make the difficult choice of embracing an identity based on standards of “civilization” established by the dominant Euro-centric culture, making it difficult to point out the injustices that flow from that culture (Sainsbury). Women in Sweden may have achieved the ideal society as worker citizens, but identities as wife and mother are suspect as the basis for public policy (Hobson). Travestis may scandalize clients by proclaiming their sexual proclivities to the world, but they may also get killed in the process. Surprisingly, it is these scandalous, but risky, performances of Brazilian travestis that stand at one end of an autonomy dimension compared, at the other end, to Roma in Hungary or black, ethnic minority and migrant women in Europe who have little control over the representation of their identities. The lack of autonomy that many protagonists experience in controlling their identity portrayal is just one reflection of the degree to which they are embedded in adversarial and mediated relationships of long standing. Identity challenges spring not only, as expected, from targets of opposition, but frequently from allies and other actors sharing at least one salient identity. In Hungary, the Roma are at the bottom of the ethnic hierarchy in terms of recognition and services from the state, but among themselves, they are also divided in terms of the “struggles and mutual prejudices” between Beás, Oláh and Romungro groups in terms of who is a real Gypsy. Travestis, in Brazil, are alternately celebrated for their beauty and vilified for the ambiguity of their sexual identity, not only by police, politicians, and the Church, but, to less extent, by gays and lesbians with whom they make common cause on some issues (Klein and Kulick). Black, migrant and ethnic minority women in Europe not only lack political standing to speak for themselves, but they fail to receive a favorable hearing from the white, middle class women who make up the European Women’s Lobby (Williams). In Australia, claims by white women that they have been ignored in a male-centered history of their country are challenged by women of African ancestry whose claims are contested, in turn, by Aboriginal women. Szalai says for the Hungarian Gypsies, “It is obvious that the striking of a balance, the representation and institutionalization of the values of identity, are the most pressing internal affairs facing the Roma community in our time.” 8
  • 10. For Lake, these are the “dialogic implications of recognition struggles” where categories of identity are destablized and, in the case of feminists, delimited. Similarly, in rejecting a politics of difference, Gal argues that, feminists must accept a politics of particularity as opposed to claims of universal inclusiveness. Otherwise, like Sainsbury, Gal finds that “In every assertion of difference we can find the implicit homogenization of those newly identified as a category of the different.” In Oklahoma, the division between “Indian” and “settler” subdivides into “civilized” and “savage” Indians versus European, African, Asian and Hispanic settlers. Civilized Indians are differentiated between…… Before the Civil War, African settlers were further subdivided into free and slave. For the suffrage movement, gender further divided all of these. Yet, the threat of “infinite recursivity” identified by Gal is played out in the real world of politics and movement mobilization by social actors who see opportunities and liabilities in claiming or repudiating identities. The challenges described here by actors who are similarly situated reflects the inevitable overlap of underrepresented identities among those who have traditionally occupied relatively powerless social locations. It is rarely the case that mis-representation and maldistribution are unidimensional in terms of identities. Women, for instance, have ethnic, religious, nationality, class and political identities as well. For each of these identities, the individual receives variable degrees of recognition and distributive rewards. In the past, social movements created identities such as “feminist” or “socialist” to subsume these diverse sources of meaning for the individual. Despite its limitations, the identity of the gender neutral worker citizen in Sweden, created by the labor movement in the 19th century, has been, perhaps, one of the most successful and flexible in accommodating a multiplicity of changing policy issues and historical circumstances. Such all-embracing identities have usually succeeded, however, only when the recognition and distributive rewards on other identities was relatively higher (such as white, middle class feminists) or, alternatively, when encapsulation of a movement (Zald and Ash, 1966) precluded action on more than one identity (terrorists, sects). Identity as the Basis of Social Movement Continuity. Theorists such as Melucci (1987, 1996), della Porta and Diani (2000) have argued that social movement identities are a major, if not the major source of social movement continuity. However, many of the studies described here document a remarkable variability in the negotiation and construction of identities over time and space. Continuity of identities seems to be associated with polar extremes of success and failure in mobilization. Hobson’s discussion of the Swedish “worker citizen” is illustrative of successful mobilization as is Ferree’s description of “women’s” increasing media standing on the abortion issue in Germany and the United States over a considerably shorter time span. Women’s on-going mobilizations in both countries around the abortion issue has enhanced their media standing which serves as a source of continuity reflecting the movement’s success. Hobson’s study of the framing of women’s issues in Sweden demonstrates the overwhelming success of the early framing of identities legitimated in terms of class by the labor movement of the late 19th century. Looking at women’s political positioning over the course of the 20th century, she shows the “path dependent” nature 9
  • 11. of identity framing for women within this political discourse. After gaining suffrage in 1920, most women in Sweden were assimilated into the Social Democratic Party on the basis of a gender neutrality that had characterized the discourse of the early labor movement and continued throughout most of the century despite the fact that many issues of concern to women could not be accommodated. Recent repudiation of widow’s pensions and allowances for women to care for their own children in the home have continued to validate a universal, class-based identity for women, like men, as workers, parents and citizens. Contemporary feminist mobilizations have served to increase women’s political role in the government and the party, but it has been difficult to address the concerns of immigrant women, women’s unpaid work and their low pay in service occupations. It would appear that electoral success, which institutionalizes adversarial relationships, can serve to provide the continuity of a social movement identity over the long term. The second set of issues involves a more traditional set of concerns, the difficulties in creating, maintaining, and defending a social movement identity over time and space in a hostile environment and from external challenges. Gal, for instance, describes the difficulties of creating a “feminist” identity in Central East Europe after the end of state socialism. She points out how politically marginal feminists responded to charges of “alien” or “foreign” influences by searching for origins in the history of late 19th and early 20th century Hungary. Unfortunately for contemporary Hungarian feminists, these historical excavations have unearthed a further charge of “alien” as early suffrage campaigns for women have been linked to attempts to win the vote for ethnic minorities. Even the identity of “mothers,” which served as the basis for mobilization in Spain, underwent continual challenge as they sought to support their drug-dependent children. At first they banded together for support and then to transfer some of their respectability as mothers to their children who were characterized as criminals. As Valiente describes it, their “standing” was questioned again by university professionals who challenged their expertise in treating drug dependency. First, identities are inevitably linked to political programs that represent experiences and interests that serve some people better than others within the category embraced. The discussion above on the contested nature of boundaries indicates just how difficult it is to maintain the authenticity of a movement identity over time against challenges from within the category (woman, homosexual). These internal challenges to authenticity, so richly described in the chapters here, deserve a more prominent place in social movement theories. Paradoxically, identities of victimized categories of people seem to offer the most continuity in the studies here as others generate social movements on their behalf. The Roma in Hungary, described by Szalai, are the objects of others mobilization and policy making as are the black and migrant women on whose behalf Left feminist lobby the European Union (Williams). While movement theorists have previously indicated the importance of identity construction for protagonists, antagonists, and bystander publics, the papers here indicate that the objects of social movements’ attentions or their beneficiaries also have social identities that should be considered. 10
  • 12. Political Context and the Construction of Identities. The role of political institutions in social movement theory has been largely centered on the role of states, political parties, and, rarely, supra- national entities in opening and closing political opportunities (Tilly, 1978; McAdam, 1982; Tarrow, 1994, 1998; McAdam, McCarthy and Zald,1996). In a critique published in the mid-1990s, Gamson and Meyer argue that “political opportunity” had become a sponge concept soaking up virtually every aspect of the social movement environment with the result that it ultimately explained nothing at all (1996). For present purposes, the importance of their critique is its emphasis on the fact that “Political opportunities are subject to framing processes and are often the source of internal movement disagreements about appropriate action strategies” (p. 276). Yet, in their rendering of political opportunity structures as ranging from volatile to stable and embracing cultural elements from myths and narratives to issue cultures and media frames, they neglect the role of collective identities. While indicating that movements embrace a range of actors, they fail to note that it is collective identities that distinguish these actors. While they embrace process approaches to political opportunity, they fail to recognize the centrality of negotiating collective identities. The current volume helps to address these omissions. Almost half of the chapters seek to articulate the role of political institutions in the negotiation of collective identities. At a time when conflict still rages between Catholic and Protestant in Northern Ireland, Palestinian and Israeli and in the Middle East, Pakistani and Indian in Kashmir, it is obvious that categorical identities provide a major line of contestation within and between states. As well, supra-national political entities are mirrored by supra-national identity movements ranging from feminists to terrorists. It is also obvious that states and their policies reflect political configurations elevating some identities and repressing others. Policies of subordination and oppression are reflected in the long-term victimization of peoples because of their identities. Domestic and foreign policies of national and emerging supra- national political ent ities influence the forms of identity victimization as well as potential for mobilization. Sainsbury’s study of the Oklahoma suffrage movement a century ago, surprisingly, illustrates the degree to which local recognition struggles and movement mobilizatio ns have long been influenced by the imperatives of national politics. Central Europe has experienced the collapse of one supra- national political configuration, state socialism, that had dominated the region since the end of World War II and now faces the increasing influence of another supra-national entity in the European Union. The aftermath of state socialism in Central Eastern Europe has opened those regions to some influence from Western Europe regarding the democratic treatment of identity groups, but the chapters here indicate the moderation of that influence by political configurations arising from both the immediate and the distant past. Gal, for instance, describes a political arena that has been masculinized in Hungary as an assertion against the discredited emphasis of state socialism on “equality” and “liberation,” leaving no political space for women’s mobilization as women. The opening of political opportunities for men with the end of state socialism has brought with it a closing of available identities for women, and thus, of opportunities. Although non-governmental organizations (NGOs) representing western governments provide a space where feminist discourse and women’s participation is encouraged, Gal finds that the language of equality is discredited as 11
  • 13. alien and foreign. The very real problems women face of domestic violence, pornography and sexual harassment must be addressed without recourse to feminist discourse or mobilization in that guise. In further consideration of the aftermath of state socialism in Hungary, Szalai describes how Hungary’s recent accession to the European Council has led to a policy on minorities designed to satisfy Western legal norms, but at the same time has set precedents that will advantage the larger number of ethnic Hungarians living beyond state borders. Because the national minorities in Hungary are quite small and well assimilated and the largest minority, the Gypsies, are poorly organized, the Minority Law of 1993 could afford to be “relatively generous” in determination of minority entitlements. Ethnic Hungarians living beyond the borders could then “bring to the table” these precedents, perhaps even gaining political representation in Romania, Slovakia, the Ukraine and, even, Yugoslavia. As Szalai describes the symbolic politics of the new law, it is not surprising that the diaspora community of Roma was considered least of all in its creation, and its ‘entitlements’ are of little use to them. In this political context, with increasing evidence of segregation and discrimination, and their poor internal organization, Roma are increasingly engaged in sporadic, low-level mobilizations like radical self-defense, protest campaigns, calls for statutory intervention, and extremist attacks “with a touch of “Robin Hoodism.” Her call for a Hungarian social science that could provide a non-patronizing rationale for supporting the Roma might serve as the basis for a broader social movement. The role of the European Union in providing a forum for the greater recognition of women’s rights has provided new political opportunities as well as a new focal point for women’s mobilizations. This is apparent in Williams’ discussion of mobilizations on behalf of black and migrant women in Europe and Hobson’s treatment of assistance that women in the Republic of Ireland have received from the conditions set down for EU membership. For black and migrant women, the intercession of Left women with the Women’s Lobby of the EU offered political opportunities that were not available in member states. For Irish women, the monolithic hold of the Catholic Church and state that encode essential gender differences in famialism and nationalism was to some extent broken when criteria for EU membership forced changes in rights to work in 1973. These changes could build on the increasing mobilization of Irish women that was accelerated by a 1967 United Nations’ directive to NGOs to create official national organizations to lobby governments for gender equality. By 1995, the resulting Irish Council for the Status of Women had become the official National Women’s Council of Ireland, representing over eighty women’s organizations. Despite their increasing importance in influencing political opportunities for recognition struggles, supra- national political entities have not taken the place of national level politics. Two of the chapters here point to different phases in the struggle to establish what Hobson calls the cultural coding of citizenship or collective identities as they become embedded in political policies and culture. Hobson’s chapter on the long-term hegemony of gender neutral framing by the Swedish labor movement that persisted throughout much of the twentieth century demonstrates the power of identities created by successful social movements. In the Swedish case, this was an identity based on the worker-citizen which, over the course of the century, served as the framework for recognition struggles around gender issues. Thus, public 12
  • 14. policy gradually incorporated gender differences so that women won the right to vote, to equal responsibility with their husbands for the care and support of their children, to secondary schooling, to work in the civil service and to income maintenance when fathers failed to pay their support. In what she terms “path dependency” this channeling of the relationship between gender and citizenship created a false universalism in which women were incorporated into the polity on the same basis as men. Path dependency or an overdetermined set of political identities that failed to acknowledge disparities in men’s and women’s life course and choices led to the threat of a separate women’s party by the end of the century. While the success of the Swedish labor movement’s universalistic model of the worker-parent-citizen illustrates the way in which a hegemonic identity shaped recognition struggles for much of the twentieth century, Sainsbury’s study of the suffrage movement in Oklahoma indicates how a multiplicity of recognition struggles were influenced by the cha nging opportunities defined by national politics: a civil war in which native Americans made the mistake of siding with the South; the punishing aftermath of that choice for native Americans and former slaves; party alignments defined by the war; shifting criteria for citizenship and for statehood; federal definitions of individual as opposed to communal property rights; and constitutional tolerance for state segregation laws. Despite this largely negative political context, the variety of recognition struggles provided opportunities in which the only state with a slave and confederate legacy granted full suffrage to women prior to passage of the federal constitutional amendment. A series of territorial and state conventions served to mobilize women among na tive Americans, blacks, socialists, populists, and Euro- American settlers. With the largest socialist vote in the U.S., Oklahoma early enacted progressive legislation legalizing the referendum and initiative which served as the means by which women were gradually able to increase the margin of support for suffrage. Conclusions McAdam, Tarrow and Tilly (2001) argue in their work on contentious politics that there is a fine line at most between social movements and the politics of everyday life. It is within the context of social movements, however, that the indeterminacy of culturally embedded identities is heightened and new possibilities are explored. The centrality of processes of negotiating and constructing identities that lie at the heart of contemporary studies of collective action tends to emphasizes fluidity and openness . Yet, these processes occur within contexts of enduring political cultures as well as varying political opportunities. Although there are shades of meaning and interpretation that theoretically open countless avenues of collective action, the historical continuities attached to these identities (some of very short duration) preclude an infinite variety of conceivable actions. Their approach which emphasizes universal processes of contention across the modern period is contrasted with Melucci’s continuing assertion (1996) that the contemporary period calls forth an unusually strong emphasis on the negotiation, construction and deployment of collective identities, in short, recognitio n struggles. It is his claim that their agents seek recognition for identities as much as achievement of material and symbolic objects. 13
  • 15. This treasury of case studies provide an impressive legacy for the continuing study of collective identities. Like Melucci, they define recognition struggles as a process. Like Melucci, they richly illustrate that a collective identity is not a “thing;” it is a set of activities. Yet, also like della Porta and Diani, Gamson, Snow, Benford, Taylor, Whittier and their collaborators, they repeatedly describe a set of recurring activities of negotiation and construction of boundaries that are consequential for redistribution in contexts strongly influenced by national and supra-national politics. So central are collective identities to social movements that these activities can take over other processes of networking, solidarity, strategic planning in a field of variously situated actors. Melucci’s conceptual solution is in referencing a verb, identization, by which he refers to “this increasingly self-reflexive and constructed manner in which contemporary collective actors tend to define themselves… Within the boundaries of our language, it is a rough and provocative acknowledgment of a qualitative leap in the present forms of collective action and also a call for an equivalent leap in our cognitive tools” 1995: 51). None of these theorists or the papers here meet Melucci’s call for recasting the entire study of social movements. He continued to argue through his last publications that current approaches are too top down, too political, and too superficial. By taking the movement at its word that it is a legitimate actor, he argues, the analyst ignores the most important questions related to the negotiation and construction of social actors. While not embracing Melucci’s entire agenda, the present volume points us in three new directions based on their extended exploration of the discursive implications of recognition struggles: the centrality of adversarial relationships in the negotiation and construction of identities, and, thus, the lack of autonomy that most collective actors face in being understood in thee way they understand themselves; the potential of identities as a source of continuity for movements over time and space, yet the highly contingent nature of meanings ascribed to identities in different times and places; and, finally, the often ignored roles of states and their agents in reinforcing or suppressing identities in conjunction with their more familiar role in opening and closing political opportunities. Each of these themes moves the struggles for collective recognition closer to the center of social movement theory. Melucci would have been pleased. 14
  • 16. REFERENCES Della Porta, Donatella and Mario Diani. 1999. Social Movements: An Introduction Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Ferree, Myra Marx and Frederick Miller. 1985. Mobilization and Meaning: Toward an Integration of Social Psychological and Resource Perspectives on Social Movements. Sociological Inquiry 55: 38-61. Gamson, William A. 1992a. “The Social Psychology of Collective Action.” Pp. 53-76 in Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. _______________. 1992b. Talking Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. _______________. 1995. Constructing Social Protest. Pp. 85-106 in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gamson, William A., Bruce Fireman, and Steven Rytina. 1982. Encounters with Unjust Authority. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press. Gamson, William A. and David S. Meyer. 1996. Framing Political Opportunity. Pp. 275- 290 in McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Cambridge University Press. Goffman, Ervin. 1974. Frame Analysis. An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Hunt, Scott A., Robert D. Benford, and David A. Snow. 1994. Identity Fields: Framing Processes and the Social Construction of Movement Identities. Pp. 185-206 in Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph Gusfield, eds. New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Johnston, Hank and Bert Klandermans, eds. 1995. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Klandermans, Bert. 1984. Mobilization and Participation: social Psychological Expansions of Resource Mobilization Theory. American Sociological Review 49: 583-600. 15
  • 17. McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. McAdam, Doug, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly. 2001. Contentious Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. McAdam, Doug, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald, eds. 1996. Comparative Perspectives On Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framing. New York: Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, John and Mayer Zald. 1973. The Trends of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press. _______________. 1977. Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory. American Journal of Sociology 82: 1212-41. McPhail, Clark. 1991. The Myth of the Madding Crowd. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Melucci, Alberto. 1985. The Symbolic Challenge of Contemporary Movements. Social Research 52: 789-816. _______________. 1989. Nomads of the Present. London: Hutchinson Radius. ???????? _______________. 1995. The Process of Collective Identity. Pp. 41-63 in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. _______________. 1996. Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morris, Aldon and Carol Mueller, eds. 1992. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. Olson, Marcur. 1963. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard. Pizzorno, Alessandro. 1978. Political Exchange and Collective Identity in Industrial Conflict. Pp. 277-98 in C. Crouch and Alessandro. Pizzorno eds., The Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western Europe. New York: Holmes & Meier. Snow, David A., Burke E. Rochford, Steven Worden and Robert Benford. 1986. Frame 16
  • 18. Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation. American Sociological Review 51: 464-81. Snow, David A. and Robert D. Benford. 1992. Master Frames and Cycles of Protest. Pp. 133-155 in Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. Tarrow, Sidney. 1998. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. Second edition. (First edition, 1994). Taylor, Verta. 1989. Social Movement Continuity: The Women’s Movement in Abeyance. American Sociological Review 54: 761-75. Taylor, Verta and Nancy Whittier. 1992. Collective Identity in Social Movement Communities: Lesbian Feminist Mobilization.” Pp. 104-129 in Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, eds. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. _______________. 1995. Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture: The Culture of the Women’s Movement. Pp. 163- 187 in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA:Addison- Wesley. Touraine, Alain. 1981. The Voice and the Eye. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17
  • 19. 18