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AGGREGATE DEMAND &
SUPPLY
CONSUMPTION FUNCTION
2. INVESTMENT FUNCTION
3. MULTIPLIER
1.
AGGREGATE
DEMAND








Total spending in an economy by
households,business,government and
foreigners
AD = C+I+G+X-M
C = CONSUMPTION
I = INVESTMENT
G = GOVT SPENDING
X-M = NET EXPORTS
Factors affecting AD:
Aggregate Demand

MONEY
2. TAXES
3. PRICES
4. TRADE

Price

1.

Output

Aggregate demand is a downward sloping curve because as price
increases , real balances i.e. nominal balances / prices falls which implies
that Aggregate Demand falls.
Shifts of Aggregate demand curve:







Autonomous consumption (autonomous consumer spending) C
which depends upon:

consumer nominal wealth

consumer expectations and confidence concerning job
security and future income
 money supply

autonomous taxes
Planned investment spending I, which depends upon:

real interest rates (i.e., changes in interest rates not caused
by changes in the price level)
 business profit expectations or the expected rate of return

business taxes

money supply
Government spending G:
Net export spending X-M:
AGGREGATE SUPPLY






How much output would be willingly produced and sold,
given prices and costs ?
Increase in labor and capital have led to a vast increase in
the economy’s potential capacity to produce, shifting the
aggregate supply curve to the right.
In the long run, the as becomes the primary determinant
of growth.
Factors affecting Aggregate
Supply
Aggregate Supply

1. PRICES
3. POTENTIAL

OUTPUT
4. TECHNOLOGY

Price

2. COST

Output
Price

Aggregate Demand-Supply

Agg Demand
Agg Supply

Output
AS-AD Framework


Intersection between AS-AD Curves, will
give us the four Macro variables
1.
2.
3.
4.



Prices
Output
Employment
Foreign trade

Equilibrium output or actual output may
not be the full employment output.
Putting AD and AS together
AS
Prices

A shift in the AD curve to AD1
as a result of a change in any
or all of the factors affecting
AD would increase growth,
reduce unemployment but at
a cost of higher inflation (a
trade-off)

AD 1
AD
In this situation, the economy
would be operating at less than
capacity, there would be
unemployment and the economy

Y1

Y2

Yf

output
Supply Side Policies:






These include reduced taxes to increase
motivation, efficiency, better technology.
The shift of the supply curve will increase
output but reduce prices.
Reaganomics followed Supply side policies.
Consumption Function:






C= a +bY
a= Autonomous consumption
bY = induced consumption
b = marginal propensity to consume
Mpc = slope of the consumption
function- it indicates the change in
consumption due to a change in
income.
mpc and mps









The mirror image of mpc is mps.
The increase in income is distributed between
consumption and savings
Hence mpc +mps =1
If there are taxes, consumption is a function
of disposable income.
Hence C =f (YD)
YD = Disposable income = Y-T where T =
taxes.
Mpc and mps






Mpc = dc/dy
b = change in c due to a change in y
Hence b greater than or equal to zero.
Average propensity to consume –
Apc =C/Y. If Y is very low apc may be
greater than 1.
45 degree model
cons

45Degree line
C=a+bY
Intersection with 45degree line
gives y=c

income
Consumption

45 degree model

45'
C
C+I
C+I+G

Income
multiplier


The slope of the aggregate demand line is
approximately equal to the marginal
propensity to consume because none of the
other three major components of aggregate
demand depends strongly on national
income. Government purchases, investment
spending, and net exports are all more-orless independent of the level of national
income. They are considered autonomous.
MULTIPLIER







Y= C+I+G
Y is an endogenous variable whereas I and G
are autonomous or exogenous variable.
When any autonomous variable increase the
effect on the eqm output is by a multiplied
amount.
The size of the multiplier depends on mpc.
multiplier


The aggregate demand line on the incomeexpenditure diagram slopes upward because
consumption is higher when national income
is higher. The slope of the aggregate demand
line--the amount by which aggregate demand
increases for every dollar increase in national
income--is approximately equal to the
marginal propensity to consume.
Shift of Investment Function:
Multiplier:








Y = C + I, where C = a + bY
Eq. 1.: Y = a + bY + I
Suppose I changes by ∆I such
that Y changes by ∆Y. The new
equilibrium is:
Eq. 2.: Y + ∆Y = a + b(Y + ∆Y) +
I + ∆I
Eq. 2.: Y + ∆Y = a + bY + b∆Y +
I + ∆I
MULTIPLIER




Eq. 2.:
I + ∆I
Eq. 1.:
+ I

Y + ∆Y = a + bY + b∆Y +
Y
∆Y =





= a + bY
b ∆Y

+ ∆I
∆Y - b∆Y = ∆I
(1 – b )∆Y = ∆I
∆Y = [ 1/(1 – b )] ∆I
Multiplier:





∆Y = [ 1/(1 – b )] ∆I
1/(1 – b ) is the investment
multiplier.
We can say, then, that if
investment spending increases by
∆I, then the equilibrium level of
income will increase by 1/(1 – b )
times that increase
multiplier
Notice that with a high MPC, this
economy is sensitive to even a small
change in investment spending.


The size of the multiplier depends on the
marginal propensity to consume: the higher
the marginal propensity to consume, the
higher the multiplier. A higher marginal
propensity to consume means that a larger
share of any increase in incomes is then
spent on consumption. A higher marginal
propensity to consume means that the
aggregate demand line--the line representing
total spending as a function of income--is
steeper.


A steeper aggregate demand line
means that even a small upward (or
downward) shift in it will have a large
effect on where it crosses the 45
degree income-expenditure line, and
thus a large effect on national income.
This is what we call a large value of the
multiplier.
Limitations of the Multiplier:









The process is subject to the availability of
consumer goods
Investments have to be repeated at regular
intervals to make the multiplier work.
Mpc has to remain constant
No time lags between income receipts and
spending
Assumption of involuntary employment
Accelerator Model:





The accelerator principle states that an
increase in capital stock is a function of
the increase in output(demand) and the
accelerator coefficient.
I = α (Yt – Yt-1)
Where α = acceleration coefficient or
capital output ratio.
Assumptions:






It operates only if the existing capital
equipment in the economy is fully
utilized.
firms increase their production capacity
to meet the increase in demand without
looking at the time period.
Capital output ratio is fixed- no
technological changes



There is no ceiling on investment.
An increase in the rate of growth of output is
accompanied by net investment.
Replacement investment is not explained by
this principle.Required stock Net investment
output
of capital
30

60

-

40

80

20

60

120

40

70

140

20

80

160

20

95

190

30

95

190

0

90

180

-10
limitations







If there is excess capacity in an industry
there is no investment required.
Lumpiness of capital
In case of an output decline investment
should fall but only to the extent of
depreciation.
Ignores the gestation period






Other factors which affect investment
are profitability of investment,
availability of funds,etc.
Full capacity requirement is not always
satisfied.
Acceleration principle is used to explain
the shape of business cycles.

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Aggregate+demand+&supply

  • 1. AGGREGATE DEMAND & SUPPLY CONSUMPTION FUNCTION 2. INVESTMENT FUNCTION 3. MULTIPLIER 1.
  • 2. AGGREGATE DEMAND       Total spending in an economy by households,business,government and foreigners AD = C+I+G+X-M C = CONSUMPTION I = INVESTMENT G = GOVT SPENDING X-M = NET EXPORTS
  • 3. Factors affecting AD: Aggregate Demand MONEY 2. TAXES 3. PRICES 4. TRADE Price 1. Output Aggregate demand is a downward sloping curve because as price increases , real balances i.e. nominal balances / prices falls which implies that Aggregate Demand falls.
  • 4. Shifts of Aggregate demand curve:     Autonomous consumption (autonomous consumer spending) C which depends upon:  consumer nominal wealth  consumer expectations and confidence concerning job security and future income  money supply  autonomous taxes Planned investment spending I, which depends upon:  real interest rates (i.e., changes in interest rates not caused by changes in the price level)  business profit expectations or the expected rate of return  business taxes  money supply Government spending G: Net export spending X-M:
  • 5. AGGREGATE SUPPLY    How much output would be willingly produced and sold, given prices and costs ? Increase in labor and capital have led to a vast increase in the economy’s potential capacity to produce, shifting the aggregate supply curve to the right. In the long run, the as becomes the primary determinant of growth.
  • 6. Factors affecting Aggregate Supply Aggregate Supply 1. PRICES 3. POTENTIAL OUTPUT 4. TECHNOLOGY Price 2. COST Output
  • 8. AS-AD Framework  Intersection between AS-AD Curves, will give us the four Macro variables 1. 2. 3. 4.  Prices Output Employment Foreign trade Equilibrium output or actual output may not be the full employment output.
  • 9. Putting AD and AS together AS Prices A shift in the AD curve to AD1 as a result of a change in any or all of the factors affecting AD would increase growth, reduce unemployment but at a cost of higher inflation (a trade-off) AD 1 AD In this situation, the economy would be operating at less than capacity, there would be unemployment and the economy Y1 Y2 Yf output
  • 10. Supply Side Policies:    These include reduced taxes to increase motivation, efficiency, better technology. The shift of the supply curve will increase output but reduce prices. Reaganomics followed Supply side policies.
  • 11. Consumption Function:      C= a +bY a= Autonomous consumption bY = induced consumption b = marginal propensity to consume Mpc = slope of the consumption function- it indicates the change in consumption due to a change in income.
  • 12. mpc and mps       The mirror image of mpc is mps. The increase in income is distributed between consumption and savings Hence mpc +mps =1 If there are taxes, consumption is a function of disposable income. Hence C =f (YD) YD = Disposable income = Y-T where T = taxes.
  • 13. Mpc and mps      Mpc = dc/dy b = change in c due to a change in y Hence b greater than or equal to zero. Average propensity to consume – Apc =C/Y. If Y is very low apc may be greater than 1.
  • 14. 45 degree model cons 45Degree line C=a+bY Intersection with 45degree line gives y=c income
  • 16. multiplier  The slope of the aggregate demand line is approximately equal to the marginal propensity to consume because none of the other three major components of aggregate demand depends strongly on national income. Government purchases, investment spending, and net exports are all more-orless independent of the level of national income. They are considered autonomous.
  • 17. MULTIPLIER     Y= C+I+G Y is an endogenous variable whereas I and G are autonomous or exogenous variable. When any autonomous variable increase the effect on the eqm output is by a multiplied amount. The size of the multiplier depends on mpc.
  • 18. multiplier  The aggregate demand line on the incomeexpenditure diagram slopes upward because consumption is higher when national income is higher. The slope of the aggregate demand line--the amount by which aggregate demand increases for every dollar increase in national income--is approximately equal to the marginal propensity to consume.
  • 19. Shift of Investment Function:
  • 20. Multiplier:      Y = C + I, where C = a + bY Eq. 1.: Y = a + bY + I Suppose I changes by ∆I such that Y changes by ∆Y. The new equilibrium is: Eq. 2.: Y + ∆Y = a + b(Y + ∆Y) + I + ∆I Eq. 2.: Y + ∆Y = a + bY + b∆Y + I + ∆I
  • 21. MULTIPLIER   Eq. 2.: I + ∆I Eq. 1.: + I Y + ∆Y = a + bY + b∆Y + Y ∆Y =    = a + bY b ∆Y + ∆I ∆Y - b∆Y = ∆I (1 – b )∆Y = ∆I ∆Y = [ 1/(1 – b )] ∆I
  • 22. Multiplier:    ∆Y = [ 1/(1 – b )] ∆I 1/(1 – b ) is the investment multiplier. We can say, then, that if investment spending increases by ∆I, then the equilibrium level of income will increase by 1/(1 – b ) times that increase
  • 23. multiplier Notice that with a high MPC, this economy is sensitive to even a small change in investment spending.
  • 24.  The size of the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume: the higher the marginal propensity to consume, the higher the multiplier. A higher marginal propensity to consume means that a larger share of any increase in incomes is then spent on consumption. A higher marginal propensity to consume means that the aggregate demand line--the line representing total spending as a function of income--is steeper.
  • 25.  A steeper aggregate demand line means that even a small upward (or downward) shift in it will have a large effect on where it crosses the 45 degree income-expenditure line, and thus a large effect on national income. This is what we call a large value of the multiplier.
  • 26. Limitations of the Multiplier:      The process is subject to the availability of consumer goods Investments have to be repeated at regular intervals to make the multiplier work. Mpc has to remain constant No time lags between income receipts and spending Assumption of involuntary employment
  • 27. Accelerator Model:    The accelerator principle states that an increase in capital stock is a function of the increase in output(demand) and the accelerator coefficient. I = α (Yt – Yt-1) Where α = acceleration coefficient or capital output ratio.
  • 28. Assumptions:    It operates only if the existing capital equipment in the economy is fully utilized. firms increase their production capacity to meet the increase in demand without looking at the time period. Capital output ratio is fixed- no technological changes
  • 29.   There is no ceiling on investment. An increase in the rate of growth of output is accompanied by net investment. Replacement investment is not explained by this principle.Required stock Net investment output of capital 30 60 - 40 80 20 60 120 40 70 140 20 80 160 20 95 190 30 95 190 0 90 180 -10
  • 30. limitations     If there is excess capacity in an industry there is no investment required. Lumpiness of capital In case of an output decline investment should fall but only to the extent of depreciation. Ignores the gestation period
  • 31.    Other factors which affect investment are profitability of investment, availability of funds,etc. Full capacity requirement is not always satisfied. Acceleration principle is used to explain the shape of business cycles.