Increasing Effectiveness of ICT Projects in Developing Countries

EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18

APPROPRIATE ICT AS A TOOL TO INCREASE EFFECTIVENESS IN ICT4D:
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND ILLUSTRATING CASES
Victor van Reijswoud
Divine Word University
Papua New Guinea
vvanreijswoud@dwu.ac.pg

ABSTRACT
The need to bridge the digital divide is no longer a point of discussion and therefore focus has
shifted to the design and implementation of programs that have the potential to close the
information and knowledge gap between the developing and developed nations. Unfortunately,
the majority of these programs are small and mimic what has been successful in the developed
world. It has become increasingly clear that these successes do not necessarily translate well in
the context of developing nations. This paper develops the hypothesis that Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) projects in developing countries will become successful
only when they are adapted to local conditions. The general concept of Appropriate
Technology (AT) will be explored for the field of ICT. AT has already been embraced by fields
like architecture, building technology and agriculture, but has not yet been rooted in ICT.
The paper proposes a preliminary theory of Appropriate ICT along the lines of existing
theories in AT and System development. The theory identifies Appropriate Technology
principles at three levels: hardware, software and ICT change management. By means of real
life mini cases in the ICT for Development context in Africa, the guiding principles for
Appropriate ICT are illustrated. The paper will conclude with an agenda for further research in
the three identified levels. The research agenda targets academia, governments, NGO's and
industry.

Keywords: ICT for Development, hardware design, software design, Africa, appropriate
technology

1. INTRODUCTION
It sounds pretty normal: when you plan a mountain hike you ensure that you wear strong boots
and a pullover against the cold at higher altitudes; in case you go to the tropics you choose a
light, well ventilated tropical out-fit and a hat or cap against the merciless sun. You have been
taught that you need to adapt to the local circumstances. In disciplines such as architecture,
civil technique and industrial design, identifying, selecting and introducing appropriate and
suitable technology is well recognized, but in the field of ICT (being a young discipline) this
process is still in its infancy.
Not only computer hardware and software, but also methods and techniques for design
and implementation of information technology, are almost without exception
invented/developed in the developed countries (Europe and North America). The contextual
and cultural elements of these countries are ingrained in the design. These elements limit the
transferability of the technology to other, different, environments (Collins, 1992; Evans &
Collins, 2007). Tacit assumptions become clear in case of breakdown of operations (Winograd
& Flores, 1986) and will form the start of an explanatory of problem solving-discussion or
discourse (Habermas, 1985). In the field of ICT for Development (ICT4D), this discussion on
the limitations of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) ICT tools, softwares and methodologies in
the context of developing countries has been initiated (Gurstein, 2003, Gairola et al., 2004,
Dymond & Oestmann, 2004, Reijswoud & Topi, 2005) but is still young.
The field of ICT4D has grown dramatically in size and importance over the past decade

The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries
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EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 2

(McNamara, 2003, Levey & Young 2002). ICT4D is based on the premise that ICT is able to
bridge the digital divide between the developed and developing countries and thereby
contribute to equal distribution of wealth. Two dimensions are identified to achieve this goal:
increasing access to ICT and rationalization of work procedures to increase transparency and
accountability (Krishna & Madon, 2003). ICT is considered to be vital for the improvement of
governance and production resources (Sciadas, 2003).
The importance of ICT for poverty alleviation has been recognized at the highest
international levels when the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) dedicated
their Annual Human Development Report to the role of information and communication
technologies (UNDP, 2001). At present, most of the large development organizations have
programs with a substantial ICT component and a growing number of smaller development
initiatives have started targeted projects in the field of ICT.
In spite of all the efforts, the digital divide has not been bridged and well-documented
success stories of the application of ICT for poverty alleviation are hard to find (Krishna &
Madon, 2003, Curtain, 2004, Osama, 2006, Walsham et al., 2007). Evaluation of ICT projects
often reveals underutilization of the resources because the newly introduced ICT has not been
well integrated within the local context (Kozma, 2005), in the worst case as a result of
'dump-and-run' approaches (Volsoo, 2006, Reijswoud et al., 2005), and lack of local ownership
in the receiving communities (Vaughan, 2006). Also technical (hardware and software)
problems resulting from the 'hostile' conditions in which the ICT was introduced put a strain on
the actual impact (Gichoya, 2005). High rates of hardware breakdown combined with the low
locally available technical problem-solving skills have lead to underutilized and even
abandoned projects. Finally, high maintenance (recurring) costs for hardware, software and
internet connectivity put a financial burden on the projects rendering them financially
non-sustainable.
In spite of the enormous challenges in the context of the development of especially the
Least Developed Countries (LDCs), the academic literature to date on ICT for Development is
relatively sparse (Walsham et al., 2007). Most of the literature is produced in the public domain
by development agencies. Furthermore, little attention is paid to general frameworks to
improve the success of ICT implementations in LDCs.
There are many reasons that ICT projects in LDCs fail (Heeks, 2003) and they have
been reported from the start (Moussa & Schware, 1992, World Bank, 1993). Failure may be
caused by selection of inappropriate hardware, software and/or design and implementation
approaches. This article starts from the premise that many ICT projects in LDCs fail to
properly take into account the local context in LDCs. Building on this premise we will develop
a theory for the design and implementation of ICT projects in LDCs that takes into account
local conditions. We develop this approach along the lines of existing theories in AT in other
fields of science and general theories in information systems design.
It is apparent that ICT projects cannot be adequately understood and addressed as
technical/rational initiatives (Avgerou, 2003) and therefore, like other technical solutions, the
design and implementation of ICT solutions must be carried out in relation to the culture
(Westrup et al., 2003), the environment, the organization, the available resources, the
economic and political circumstances, and the desired impact (Avgerou, 2003). As Avegrou
states (2003: 57-58) there is need for a situated approach where IT innovation is understood in
‘their’ complex context. We propagate an integration of the discipline 'Appropriate
Technology' that aims at devising 'suitable' technological solutions. Our theory identifies
principles to do so at three levels: hardware, software and ICT change management. The theory
is described in section 2 and 3. By means of real life mini cases in the ICT for Development
context in Africa, the guiding principles for Appropriate ICT are illustrated in section 4. In
section 5 we will conclude with an agenda for further research.


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 3

2. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
In order to understand better how we can improve the effectiveness of design and
implementation of ICT projects in the LDCs we will explore the field of appropriate
technology (AT). Since the concepts of AT has not yet gained much ground in the area of ICT,
we will start our exploration with a short discussion of AT.
As a general definition we adopt the idea that AT is technology that is suitable for the
environmental, cultural and economic conditions in which the technology is intended to be
used. The opposite of AT is the 'one-size-fits-all' concept that builds on the premise that well
designed technology can be used under all circumstances – the universal model. The best
example of this line of thinking is the Swiss Army Knife. The Swiss Army Knife is designed
with the idea that it will help you out in whatever environmental, cultural and economic
condition you are in. Avgerou and Walsham (2000) characterize these two attitudes as
paralyzing anti-technology and techno-enthusiasm.
Darrow and Saxenian (1986) provide 10 criteria in the Source Book for Appropriate
Technology that we take as starting point. These criteria have been formulated to act as a basic
set of guidelines for a broad spectrum of several technologies in developing countries. ICT is
not considered explicitly by the authors. The following criteria are proposed in Darrow and
Saxenian (1986):

1. It should be possible to implement/realize technological solutions with limited financial
resources.
2. The use of available resources must be emphasized to reduce the costs and to guarantee the
supply of resources e.g., for maintenance
3. Technologies may be relatively labor-intensive, but must have a higher output than the
traditional technologies.
4. The technology must be understandable for people without specific or academic training
5. Small rural communities should be able to produce and maintain the technology
6. The technology must result into economic and/or social progress.
7. The technology must be fully understandable for the local population, the end-users
resulting into possibilities for them to become involved in the possible innovation and
extension of the use of the technology
8. The technological solutions must be flexible and easily to be adapted to changing
circumstances.
9. The technology must contribute to the increase of productivity
10. The technology should not have a negative impact on the environment.

The guiding idea for these criteria is that technologies have a good chance to be
effective if they are appropriate to the needs, expectations and limitations of the surroundings
in which they will be applied. In other words, the selected solution should be in harmony with
local standards and values and build on existing skills and techniques. A new technology will
not be embedded in a sustainable manner into an organization or community if the dependence
on the developers of the solution is high and the available resources (financial as well as
human) for maintenance are expensive and scarcely available.
Development needs that are met through community education and development tend
to be sustainable. New technology needs to address the local community as the main
stakeholder. Only then we observe self-sustainability and expanding reservoirs of skills in the
communities (Tharakan, 2006).
Although the criteria proposed by Darrow and Saxenian (1986) will result in an
appropriate design of the technology, they fail to highlight the implementation process. Even
appropriate technology can be rejected by the potential end-users if the implementation process


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 4

does not address the needs, expectations and limitations of the community and/or when the
invoked changes are not guided in an appropriate manner. We will develop this aspect in more
detail in the next section where we concentrate on Appropriate ICT.
Understanding AT is an important element in the education of engineers. In order to
operate in a development context they are required to have a good understanding of general
development issues, philosophy and ethics, and AT in development (Tharakan, 2006). In the
education of computer and information systems engineers, this knowledge has received little
attention.

3. APPROPRIATE ICT AND THE DIGITAL DIVIDE
The use of ICT in developing countries is increasing and the expectations of its role in
accelerating the socio-economic development in these countries are high (Walsham et al.,
2007, McNamara, 2003). Until recently the use of ICT in Africa and other developing
countries was reserved to large international organizations and foreign NGOs
(non-governmental organizations). Foreign ICT experts were contracted for the installation
and maintenance (Bruggink, 2003) and for conducting training beyond the basic level of Office
applications (Heeks, 1998). Local implementers had to fly to Europe or North America to
receive training. Over the last couple of years this is changing rapidly (Levey & Young, 2002).
The digital gap made it to the international agenda (and is often strongly linked to amongst
others the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG)) and with foreign support the first
programs and projects have been set up.1
Although some progress has been booked, the penetration of computers is still very low
in comparison with Western countries (Jensen, 2002). Even at this moment the majority of
people in LDCs had never touched a computer and most small and medium sized businesses
operate without them. A major challenge concerns the need to bridge the so-called ‘digital
divide’ between those people with the ability to access and use information technologies
effectively, and those without. The challenge remains to tackle such difficulties and to resolve
them (Walsham et al., 2007)
In order to bridge the digital gap information technology must be available in the life of
the 'ordinary man'. Like in Europe, North America and increasingly in Asia, the ultimate goal is
that everyone should have access to computers and information everywhere and always
(Universal Access). Not only in the large cities, not only the rich class, but information
technology must also be available for the population in the rural areas and for people with a
lower level of education. This creates formidable challenges to the developers and
implementers of ICT solutions.
The application of ICT as a tool in bridging the digital divide is not as straight forward
as many international development organizations claim. More technology does not necessary
result in development when collaboration between industry, government and development
organizations is not involved (Avgerou, 2003). Moreover, the implementation of ICT without
local support and no contributing to a local demand/need will not lead to sustainable
development. The technology will be rejected after an initial period of euphoria, as there is no
added value in it. Small technical failures will easily result in complete break down when there
is not technical support. For a multitude of reasons these aspects of the implementation of ICT
in developing countries are often overlooked by supporting donor agencies. A theory of
appropriate ICT aims to address these issues and support sustainable design and
implementation of ICTs in general and particularly in LDCs.

1For more details on the role of ICT in realizing the MDG, see: http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ict/projects.nsf
/WebPages/AA097228395769ED85256DF0007A4065?OpenDocument/*/


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3.1. Appropriate ICT
In line with the approach of Darrow and Saxenian (1986) we aim at the development of a
framework for Appropriate ICT that will guide designers, implementers and maintainers of
ICT to design and implement effective and sustainable solutions that address the needs,
expectations and limitations of the targeted communities and allows the 'ordinary man' in
LDCs to get connected to the information and knowledge society. This is an enormous
challenge and requires careful consideration to limit partial and complete failure and increase
the overall effectiveness of ICT for Development (Avgerou & Walsham, 2000).
Appropriate ICT should be perceived from two perspectives: the product and process
perspective. The product perspective is concerned with the design of the ICT systems that will
be used to offer information and communication services. This covers all aspects from
computers (and other connected electronic equipment), servers, network and connections. For
example in our approach, a computer setup that is to operate in a community in the African
desert is not considered to be appropriate when it is not well protected against heat, sand and
dust. The product perspective is very much in line with the guidelines that were developed by
Darrow and Saxenian.
The process perspective is just as vital but has not received adequate attention up to this
point. A mere techno-centric approach, even when rooted in the principle of AT, will not
deliver effective community-embedded ICT that will be appreciated and used by the potential
end-users. The emerging, interdisciplinary fields of Social Informatics (Kling, 1999) and
Community Informatics (Gurstein, 2000, 2003) provide good references for our process
perspective. Social Informatics concentrates research in three areas:

1. Theories and models: The development of models and theories that explain the social and
organizational uses and impacts of ICT.

2. Methodologies: The development of methodologies that address the social impacts of the
design, implementation, maintenance and use of ICT.

3. Philosophical and ethical issues: The study of philosophical and ethical issues that arise in
the use of ICT in social and organizational contexts.

Community Informatics (CI) constitutes a subset of Social Informatics with a focus on
communities (McIver, 2003). Where Social Informatics has a stronger research focus, CI is
more suitable for the development and implementation of ICT in developing countries (see:
Vaughan, 2006). The community itself is involved in the adaptation of ICT to their purposes
including advocacy, local information on community resources and services available,
community mapping for community planning and development (demographics, geography)
(Gurstein, 2000).
The process perspective of Appropriate ICT needs to encompass a community oriented
and participatory focus to address the needs, expectations and limitations in which the
technology is to be used. So, if computers are introduced in the African context, people should
be empowered on the devastating effect of humidity, power fluctuations, dust and sand and
learn how to open and clean the computers from the dust door maintain the computers under
these circumstances.
In order to better serve development needs, IT-related projects and systems in the
developing world must improve their capacity to address the specific contextual characteristics
of the organization, sector, country or region within which their work is located (Avgerou &
Walsham, 2000). We consider five variables relevant to address in the context:


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1. Culture: Societies, or groups in a society vary in their sets of shared attitudes, values, goals,
and practices. Culture deserves careful attention when ICTs are introduced in the
development context (Westrup et al., 2003). We consider culture a central variable.
2. Environment: Physical conditions (heat, cold, dust, humidity etc) need to establish an
important ICT solution design.
3. Organization: The structure of the organization (in the broadest sense of the word)
determines the implementation strategy of systems both in the developed as developing
world.
4. Economy: The current and future economic situation of a country, sector or organization
should serve as a determinant in the ICT investment decisions.
5. Political climate: Some governments are more restrictive in their ICT guidelines than
others. Openness is not always appreciated and some governments have ‘partnerships’ with
hardware and software suppliers.

In conclusion we define Appropriate ICT as follows:

The integrated and participatory approach that results in tools and processes
for establishing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) that is
suitable for the cultural, environmental, organizational, economic and
political conditions in which it is intended to be used.

4. AN APPROPRIATE ICT FRAMEWORK
In this section we will go beyond the definition of Appropriate ICT and propose a framework
that enables a more effective and appropriate design and implementation of ICT in LDCs. The
framework is founded in the traditional Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) that is used
in Information Systems development, but extends it with tools and approaches that will guide
the ICT solution to appropriateness. The SDLC comes in many types and flavors (Brandon,
2006) but we will adopt a basic five-phase model2:

1. Definition: Determine the goals, scope and requirements of the ICT solution
2. Design: Resolution of technical issues, selection of architecture and standards
3. Construction: Implementation of the design, testing and documentation of the system.
4. Installation: Roll-out of the services offered by the systems to the end-users, training.
5. Operation/maintenance: problem solving, user support, and incremental improvement
through monitoring an evaluation focusing on the use of the services by the end-users.

In the Appropriate ICT Framework, the SDLC is merged with the principle of
Appropriate ICT and methods are proposed. Figure 1 shows the foundation of the A-ICT
Framework: the SDLC on the outer ring and the five criteria that should be considered to
design and implement appropriate ICT solutions on the inner ring. Culture is displayed in a
central role.

2We deliberately deal very briefly with the SDLC since there are many textbooks that deal with this aspect in
detail. For more information the reader is referred to Hoffer et al., 2006; Dennis et al., 2001; Laudon and
Laudon, 2005.


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Figure 1: The Foundation of the Appropriate ICT Framework

As mentioned above, Appropriate ICT encompasses two perspectives: the product and
process. In the framework this is expressed in three aspects: Hardware, Software and Change
Management. Hardware and software result in a product, an ICT artifact. Change management
establishes the process for the design, development and implementation of the ICT artifact. In
order to guide the development of an appropriate ICT solution the framework provides a range
of guiding questions. Table 1 lists the key questions that need to be answered to address the
issues relevant in the Appropriate ICT Framework. The questions in the table integrate the 10
rules for AT and the focus areas of Appropriate ICT: culture, environment, organization,
economy and politics. The questions are structured along the phases of the System
Development Life Cycle.
Several tools and methodologies are in use by professionals in the ICT for
Development arena. A systematic inventory of approaches still needs to be made. In Figure 2
the A-ICT model is supplemented with some of the tools that are currently in use or are
recommended. More tools can be included to assess or support cultural, environmental,
organizational, economical and political dimensions of the ICT project.


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18

Table 1: Key guiding questions for Appropriate ICT Development
Phase Hardware Software Change Mgnt
Definition Specific requirements to What are the needs? What ICT knowledge levels?
hardware in terms of What are the expectations? What the financial constraints?
climatological and What is the cultural context?
environmental conditions? What added value is created?
What are the possibilities in How is the economic equilibrium affected?
terms of enabling factors What new ways of working are introduced?
(Internet connectivity, What will the impact be of the system in terms of
electricity)? organizational change?
What is the involvement in the idea generation of key
decision makers (political leaders, religious leaders)?
Design What is offered on the local What interoperability needs? What are the information needs of the various target
market? What localization is needed? groups?
What are physical constraints? What flexibility is expected? How will these needs evolve?
What the financial constraints? How do the expectations change?
Constructi What local skills are available? What local skills are available? Are local skills and knowledge being developed?
on Is the equipment protected Are features in line with skills? Are stakeholders actively involved?
against physical conditions? Are free and open source What new ways of working are introduced?
alternatives considered? What will the impact be in terms of organizational
Are the systems well change?
documented?
Installation Is all the equipment well Has the system been tested Are all stakeholders involved in training program?
protected? with all stakeholders? Is the added value made clear?

Operation / Is local capacity sufficient? Are software maintenance Is a support organization in place?
maintenan Are spare parts easily available? skills available? Is the support organization able to support all
ce stakeholders (e.g. Gender issues)


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18

Figure 2: Some tools and methodologies supporting the design and implementation of
Appropriate ICT Solutions

5. ILLUSTRATING THE APPROPRIATE ICT FRAMEWORK
In this section we illustrate the use of the Appropriate ICT Framework with some examples.
The examples in section 5.1 and 5.3 are based on projects that were designed and implemented
with the help of the International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD) 3. The
author was involved on several occasions as external advisor (between 2003 and 2005) and as
evaluator for the projects in the period September – December 2006. Section 5.2 describes a
project in which the author participated as technical adviser. The project was designed in the
period 2002-3. The implementation of the project started in 2003 and continued through 2006.
All information was collected in an ‘action research’ mode (Baskerville 1999, Argyris
et al., 1990). The information for these case studies was collected through (face-to-face and
online) interviews with program/project managers and users, attendance of project meetings
(especially in the case of the project described in section 5.2) and through document analysis
(progress reports, meeting minutes and other organizational documentation at side of the
projects as well as the donor). During the monitoring of the projects several discussion
meetings were initiated to assess the appropriateness of the proposed solution and ways to
improve it. The meetings were structure along the criteria for AT coined by Darrow and
Saxenian (1986). These discussions served as a steppingstone to start the learning process of
the project partners (second loop).
In the subsequent sections we provide a general description of the situation and explain
how an Appropriate ICT perspective provides changes to the ICT solution. Therefore the
purpose of the examples and short case studies is explorative and aiming at achieving a better
understanding of the framework and its implications for the design and implementation of ICT
in developing countries.

3 The author would like to thank Arjan de Jager and Deem Vermeulen of the IICD for sharing their experiences.


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 10

5.1. Determine Appropriate ICT Requirements
Determining requirements for ICT solutions has been a challenging issue in ICT for
development projects. The most important reason being that the majority of the users and
policy makers in LDCs have very limited exposure to the actual use of computer to support
their work processes. Their understanding of the capabilities of ICT is based on the media and
hear-say in other projects. Expectations are high and often unrealistic. Project managers from
development agencies, donors or ICT consultants end up prescribing the solution based on
their experiences in other projects. As a result, a larger number of the resulting ICT solutions
are not based on the needs of the target group and the context.
Lack of proper knowledge sharing between projects results in almost identical projects
initiated and executed in the same geographical area and/or the same thematic field. In many
cases similar ‘mistakes’ are made resulting in an unnecessary number of failures. All over
developing world organisations are supporting the set-up of telecenters or informationcenters
to improve the access to information and communication in poor neighbourhoods. At the same
time, many of these initiatives fail to deliver services that are appreciated by the clients and
almost suffer from operational problems because of limited technical maintenance skills.
Within an Appropriate ICT Framework, these problems need to be identified, addressed and
avoided.

5.1.1 Determine Appropriate ICT Requirements in the Definition Phase: ICT for Health in
Tanzania
In recognition of the fact that ICT can offer important advantages to the Health sector in
developing countries and the fact that large number of projects has been initiated over the past
years, the start of a new ICT for Health program in Tanzania was faced with a challenge. The
chances of unwanted duplication of initiatives were high and the need gaps for the sector
unclear. At the same time it was noticed that the local ICT skills were minimal, especially in
the sub-urban and rural areas. In order to address this challenge it was decided to start the
program with a health sector-wide initiation phase.
To determine the needs and expectations of the sector and to avoid duplication of
projects, a participatory idea generation process 4 was initiated. This participatory idea
generation process goes beyond that traditionally used consultation processes and is more
suitable to generate the requirements in the context of an Appropriate ICT Framework. It uses
the method of scenario development to allow participants to identify priority areas for the
development of their sector or organization. This avoids a technology focus. In a later stage
during the workshop the question is asked how ICT can be used for these priority areas. To
bring all participants to the same starting level, a reference report (situational analysis) is
produced on the current status of the sector prior to the workshop. As such the Round Table
Process is an example of a useful method during the initiation phase allowing participants to
answer the questions of this phase way. The workshop is just one part of the overall process and
gets a follow-up allowing the actors to develop and implement their own ICT projects.
During the workshop in Tanzania the stakeholders were not only requested to express
their needs and expectations of the program, they were also facilitated in the generation of
preliminary project and policy proposals that were shared with the all the stakeholders
involved. Through a process of feedback and support the stakeholders were able to generate
ideas that were new, in line with the needs of the sector and feasible in the context of the
available skills.

4The process was facilitated by the International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD). The
organization uses the term 'Round Table' to label a participatory idea generation process. For more details on
ideas behind this process, see: IICD, 2004.


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 11

Through this approach, the sector has been able to generate a coherent ICT program for
the Health sector of Tanzania. The program now includes the following interrelated project
areas:

! ICT Policy for the Health sector, supported by all the stakeholders in the sector;
! Capacity development through a continuous medical education program;
! Development of ICT capacity in both the health sector as well as the private sector to fill
the capacity;
! Development of ICT tools, based on Free and Open Source Software5 and Open Standards,
to support the hospital management;
! Information portal and low-costs Internet connectivity services and support for hospitals.

The participatory idea generation approach that was selected has been able to naturally
structure a Definition phase that takes into account the needs and expectations of the
stakeholders. Political, cultural and organizational issues were addressed in the process
through elaborate peer and reality checking of the preliminary project proposals that were
generated. Economical issues were less covered in the initiation phase, but financial feasibility
studies were conducted before the design phase of the projects. Environmental issues were
insufficiently covered in this phase for this program and were addressed in the Construction
phase.
Within the Appropriate ICT Framework the local needs are central in the design and
more innovative solutions are anticipated.

5.2. Designing Appropriate ICT
Designing hardware, software and network configurations that fit within the development
context has been a major challenge over the past years. Unfortunately in most cases the
solutions are founded in the European or American contexts and are not necessarily suitable for
the development context. For example, hardware that is not protected against the dust, sand and
heat in African countries, software that needs an internet connection to be activated or is not
supporting local languages. Also theories and tools for system development like e.g.
information modelling with Unified Modelling Language (UML) have proven to be difficult to
use in an African context.
Where a carefully conducted project Definition phase results in an outline of the needs,
expectations and possibilities for the ICT solution, the design phase needs creativity to
determine the specifications of the new ICT tool. The specifications have to suit the
characteristics of the context and not the other way around. We do not have to implement the
complexity of Microsoft Word when the characteristics of a simple word processor like
AbiWord suffice. Similarly, WiFi equipment that is suitable for the European context where
large numbers of people operate in a small area are not a suitable choice for Timbuktu where a
very limited number of people are using the connection in a large geographical area (Wireless
Internet Institute, 2003).
5.2.1. Designing a Campus Wide ICT Infrastructure in Rural Uganda6
Uganda Martyrs University is located 80 km from Kampala, the capital of Uganda. The
university operates on a relatively small budget, but has been able to develop itself as the
leading private university in the country. In spite of the financial limitations, the university

5
See Dravis, 2003; Reijswoud & Topi, 2004; Reijswoud & Jager, 2008; on the advantages of the use of Free and
Open Source Software in the developing world.
6
For an in-depth discussion of this case study see: Reijswoud and Mulo, 2007.


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administration decides on a policy that states that access to information technology and Internet
is essential for their students and staff. Against this background the ICT Department is
requested to design an ICT infrastructure that is low-cost (both in terms of initial and recurrent
costs), easy to maintain but allows staff and students to access academic information and
equips students with good ICT skills.
With the requirements in mind the department of the university developed, in
collaboration with external expertise, a plan for an ICT infrastructure based on:

! Free and Open Source Software and Open Standards for server and desktops to keep costs
for software low and avoid future license costs;
! Re-use and upgrade of existing infrastructure through the implementation of a Linux
terminal server project (Martindale, 2002);
! Elaborate capacity development to train knowledgeable ICT support staff and
well-informed students and lecturing staff;
! Bandwidth management to provide maximum access to research information while
limiting non-academic information (pornography, music and film downloads, sports, chat
etc).

Staff development for the ICT department as well sensitization of users (students and
staff) proved key in the development of these plans. Participatory learning and awareness
creation slowly guided ICT staff and users towards the conceptualization of the new ICT
infrastructure plan.
The ICT infrastructure was successfully implemented over the period 2003 – 2005 and
serves as a point of reference for other universities in the East African region that operate under
similar conditions. The infrastructure has proven to be low-cost, and through the capacity
development program administrator skills were developed to maintain the new system. The
managed Internet connection provides the required information for staff and students while
keeping maximized performance against minimized operational costs.
The project is a good example of the Design and Construction phases of Appropriate
ICT since it has taken into account the specific local conditions of the university and the
context in which the ICT was to be implemented. The economic requirements were addressed
as well as the organizational aspects. The academic culture that was considered important was
covered in the design of the network.

5.3. Implementing Appropriate ICT
Introducing ICT in a rural setting has its challenges from a product perspective (e.g. robustness
of hard- and software) but also from a process perspective. E.g. introducing a computerized
information system up-country requires organization and sector-wide consultation and/or
participation. While citizens of urban centers are more or less used to the idea of modern ICT's
and increasingly understand the advantages, the rural based projects require a step-by-step
approach to engage stakeholders and beneficiaries to counteract resistance.

5.3.1. Constructing and Implementing a Health Management Information System in
Uganda
The Uganda Catholic Medical Bureau (UCMB) is the health office of the Roman Catholic
Church (RCC) in Uganda and is amongst others supporting 27 rural hospitals. From 2004
UCMB established a system aiming at improving the use of the national Health Management
Information System (HMIS). Improved health facility management is a necessity in a situation
in which the funds for the health sector in most LDCs are decreasing while at the same time
health care delivery funding is changing to a cost-based system. Therefore more effective and


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 13

efficient ways of working are the only solution to keep the Health services at an acceptable
level. The most prominent problems that were to be addressed by the project were:

1. The information collection using the lengthy HMIS forms were unreliable (incomplete
and inaccurate) due to the labor intensive information collection procedures: The
hard-copy forms had to be filled in manually demanding hospital managers to spend
hours to correct for mistakes while all the data of the 27 hospitals had to be retyped at
UCMB HQ etc.
2. Slow feedback by UCMB to the inaccurate information in hard-copy form provided by
the hospitals (Backlogs of three to six months were not uncommon).
3. Lack of human capacity (technical as well as managerial) in order to implement and use
a proper HMIS.

The proposed technical solution was simple and straightforward. At first problem 1 was
addressed: The hard-copy forms were replaced by standardized Spreadsheets (which were sent
to UCMB using normal mail). The organizational impact of this step was still small: The
manual data entry was now supported by ICT applications. However, careful training and
awareness creation for the hospital staff was needed to avoid the computer to be locked away
and to be used as tool emphasize hierarchical differences.
After the first step the communication links between the up-country hospitals and
UCMB HQ data were set-up to address problem 2 while problem 3 was addressed. The
percentage of hospitals submitting complete and accurate HMIS forms in time moved from
48% to 96% during project implementation. The UCMB HQ can now concentrate on the
analysis and feedback to hospital managers to support informed decision-making. The
feedback mechanism enables hospital managers to finalize their planning and budgeting
processes in a timely manner. The impact of these steps from an organizational perspective was
much bigger. Due to better information the health facility managers could develop clearer
guidelines. At the same time, the decision of traditional hierarchical leaders was challenged.
Administrators were now able to challenge the management decisions of the medical staff, in
some occasions resulting in doctors sabotaging the data collection process. Only through
education and training a schism between administration and clinical staff could be avoided.
The change management process took three years and a carefully planned step-by-step
approach where the following results were achieved:

1. From hard-copy forms which had to be filled in manually to standardized spread sheets
which could be filled in using a computer: Focus on quality of data.
2. From sending these Excel forms by normal mail to sending it by email (forms as
attachments): Focus on timeliness of data.
3. A system which made it possible to link and analyze the HMIS output with a cost-based
financial system allowing hospital managers to implement an activity based costing
model in their hospitals: Focus on the use of data at managerial level.
4. From sending Excel forms by email (as attachment) to filling in on-line forms to allow
UCMB and the 27 hospitals to generate quality information on trends, statistics etc.:
Focus on use of data a macro level.

The project illustrates the importance of careful implementation processes in ICT
project in the development context. A strong traditional hierarchical structure (also described
in Stoops et al., 2003) has to be recognized and managed with an appropriate change process.
From a product perspective is needs to be mentioned that the economic (the hospitals took over
the recurrent costs after a period of two years) requirements were addressed as well as the


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 14

political aspects (involvement of religious leaders and Ministry of Health).

5.4. Discussion
In the first study we observe a situation that a participatory and consultative process guides the
definition and design of the ICT for Health program. Through this process users and other
stakeholders were engaged in a learning and knowledge sharing experience. The outcome of
the process was driven by the needs and knowledge of the users as well as constraints emerging
from the context. The resulting ICT solutions were low-tech, but appropriate. Traditional
approaches could have resulted in state-of-the-art solutions in line with available technical
paradigms in developed countries but that lack ownership of the users and fail to find support in
the local ICT community.
The design of the new ICT infrastructure at Uganda Martyrs University in Uganda
shows a design based on the requirements of the organization and the, mainly financial,
limitations of the context. Where many ICT solutions in Africa are based on donated and
pirated software, the described solution fits the situation, is legal, low-cast and has built new
and sustainable capacity. By re-using written-off hardware, increased access to ICT for
students and staff was created at very limited costs. Unfortunately, designs like these are hardly
seen in Africa and appropriate designs are hardly promoted by donor organizations.
The implementation of the Health Management Information Systems in Uganda
addresses challenges that are common in project implementation in developing countries. No
understanding of ICT, superstition and impenetrable hierarchical relations constitute barriers to
implementation that are not accommodated in modern IT project management approaches.
Most of these approaches are founded in a rational understanding of the possible advantages of
ICT and are not geared to first-time users. Long and careful implementation processes are
required that often look inefficient from a developed world perspective.

6. CONCLUSION
There is little discussion that ICT can play an accelerating role in bridging the digital divide
between developed and developing countries. The biggest challenge at the moment is to
develop an ICT infrastructure, knowledge and skills that provide opportunities for sustainable
development. As we have discussed in this paper this requires a change in perspective. The ICT
for development community has to shift away from traditional one-size-fits-all solutions to
solutions that fit the context in which the technology is to be used. The hardware, software and
change management needs to be aligned with the local cultural, environmental, organizational,
economical and political conditions in order to realize effective and sustainable development.
The Appropriate ICT Framework as presented in this article provides a guiding model
to develop appropriate ICT solutions for LDCs. The model is based on existing theories in
Appropriate Technology, Social and Community Informatics and the System Development
Life Cycle. As was illustrated in the examples, an Appropriate ICT perspective promotes a
thinking process guiding ICT4D experts to reconsider the solutions that are being designed,
developed and implemented.
The high number of failures suggests that the complexity of ICT for Development
projects is often underestimated. We often observe that the ICT component in development
projects is being handled by general project managers that have limited understanding of the
possibilities of ICT and resort to the implementation of standard solutions that have proven
their effectiveness in the developed world. In the end, the recipients in the ICT projects remain
with hardware that breaks down because it is not designed for the harsh conditions, no
available skills to maintain the software or clients that are not using it since they do not see the
added value. The initial success and the euphoria disappear as soon as the donor retreats. Donor
agencies need to recognize that ICT projects needs qualified expertise and cannot be left to


EJISDC (2009) 38, 9, 1-18 15

general project managers.
An important step will be when computer science and information systems curricula
start to adopt (elective) courses in ICT for Development and Appropriate ICT issues in line
with Tharakan (2006). Students aiming at a career in ICT for Development will be provided
with a solid understanding of the challenges and limitation of standard ICT solutions and
available alternatives.
Education needs to find its foundation in research. So far, the academic world has
shown very little interest in the development of theories and models that suit the developing
world. Too often academics seem to believe that they are developing universal theories or
models. Experiences with the applications of these theories and models in the developing
world show that they are far from universal.
Governments and policy makers in developing countries need to be educated that
theories, models and technology that are developed in the developed countries do not provide a
guarantee for success. Many do believe this. Suppliers of software and hardware as well as
project managers should be questioned critically on how the products fit in the local context.
The A-ICT Framework will give them guidance in assessing their needs and query the
solutions that are presented.
The A-ICT framework we have presented in this paper forms the foundation for a larger
project to provide a flexible approach for the design and implementation of ICT in developing
countries. A more detailed inventory of tools and methodologies will be developed and case
studies will be reviewed more thoroughly. The A-ICT framework will have to be tested as a
prescriptive methodology. At present the framework first test have started in a project focusing
on the design and implementation of a nation-wide Academic Registration Information System
in Mozambique (Pscheidt et al., 2009).

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