Left Ideologies and Cultural Movements in Colonial Andhra

Social Scientist
Literary and Theatre Movements in Colonial Andhra: Struggle for Left Ideological Legitimacy
Author(s): V. Ramakrishna
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 21, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Feb., 1993), pp. 69-85
Published by: Social Scientist
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3517839 .
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V. RAMAKRISHNA*
Literaryand TheatreMovementsin Colonial
Andhra:StruggleforLeftIdeologicalLegitimacy
Thepaperproposestoassessand analysethestruggleofleft-oriented
culturalmovements,specificallyrelatingto literatureand theatre,in
the Andhraregionof theerstWhileMadras Presidency,duringthe
colonialrule,and theirbid forideologicaland politicalhegemony.
The progressive writers'movementand the people's theatre
movementwereconcernedwithproductionandpropagationofpopular
literatureand people'stheatrerespectively.Eliteand popularstrands
are twostreamsofcultureofanysocietythatexistsimultaneouslyas
parallel forms with differentlevels of mutually influencing
interactions.Hopes and aspirations,joys and sorrows,travailsand
tribulationsof the popular classes of society are embodied in
vernacularfolkliterature.1Women'sliteratureconsistingmainlyof
folk songs is available in plenty.2They forma part of the oral
traditionthoughtheauthorshipis anonymous.Songs dealing with
ritualsperformedby women-both religiousand secular-puberty,
marriage,child birthand fertility,'sumangali'rites,romanticand
humoroussituationsbetweenmother-in-lawand daughter-in-law,
situationsexpressingintimaterelationshipsbetweenmembersofclose
kinshipinfamilies,3songsrelatingtoagriculturaloperations-sowing,
weeding,harvesting,milling,etc.,are some of theexamplesin this
context.4Theuse ofpopularidiomand similiesdrawnfromeveryday
lifewhichmarkedtheirsingingare typicalofruralfolk-traditionand
thisgenreofliteratureis simpleinitsexpressionwithoutanyliterary
embellishments,whicharecommonlyseenineliteformsofliterature.
Similarly,performingartforms,as partofpopularculture,are also
seenas off-shootsoflifeand itsstruggles.SomeoftheTelugufolkart-
formsare 'Harikatha','Burrakatha','Veedhi natakam'(streetplay)
'Kolatam','Golla Suddulu','Bhajanalu','ChenchuVeshalu',etc.One
cannoticeherethatsonganddanceconstitutetheessentialcomponents
offolkart.Manyoftheseartformsofpopularculturehave been in
existencefromthepre-moderntimes.However,thenecessarychanges
DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofHyderabad.
SocialScientist,Vol.21,Nos. 1-2,January-February1993

70 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
aremadeinthem,keepingintunewiththetransitionoftimes,inform,
contentandtechnique.
The presentpaper,as alreadystated,is aboutthecontinuationof
thepopular culturaltraditionin literatureand theatre,thoughthe
motivesand aimsaredifferent.Bothprogressivewriters'and people's
theatremovementsinAndhrahavetobe viewedas a partofall India
movementsthataroseduringthelate1930s,inthewakeofthespread
of socialistideas withinthenationalistmovement,as a reactionto
Gandhiji'sprinciplesand methodsof struggleand also under the
impactofsocialistexperimentinSovietRussia,economicdepressionof
1929-30 and the rise of Fascism.Consequently,a studyof these
movementswhich were closelyconnectedwithsocialistideology
wouldalsohelpusunderstandtheriseandgrowthofpopulareconomic
and politicalstrugglesin Andhra,inspiredby socialistideologyand
theirmutualinteractionand spreadduringthisperiod.Also,one can,
througha studyofthesemovements,studytheimpactofleftideology
on thepeopleand theirstrugglesagainstimperialism,feudalismand
other formsof exploitation.It is an interestingbut significant
coincidencethatpopularmovementsinspiredbyleftideologysuchas
KisanSabhas,Agriculturallabourorganisations,tradeunions,youth,
studentand womenfederationson one side, and popular cultural
movements-literary and theatre-one the other, developed
simultaneouslyalongwitheach other,one motivatingthegrowthof
the other.5A revivaland activeuse of thepopularartformsby a
politicallyinspiredideologyalso helpedimmenselyin thegrowthof
thenationalmovement.Thusitis preciselyinthisculturalareawhere
we can see therelationshipbetweenthestruggleforleftideological
legitimacywithinthe anti-colonialstruggleand its influenceon
Gandhiannationalistmovementand also,ultimately,on thepositive
growthofradicalmovements.
Literatureand art,hithertomainlyconfinedto educatedsections,
eruditeand scholarlygatherings,Zamindars'durbarswithemphasis
on literarygimmickssuch as 'Avadhanas', 'Padabandha Kavita',
'ChitraKavita'(experimentswithinconventionalmetreand prosody),
indulgingliberallyin depicting'Sringara','Viraha',have now been
changedand broughtto thelevelofthepeople.6Similarly,theatre,
which became highlytechnique-orientedwith large settingsand
lightingarrangementsundertheinfluenceof Maharashtra(Surabhi
theatre)and Karnataka(Dharwad theatre)styles,7now gave up all
its ostentatiousexternalitiesand broughtwithinthe reach of the
people.Moreoftenthannot,thepopularartformswerestagedon a
dais whichused tobe madeoutoftwobullockcartsoron thecentral
pial of the village ('Rachchabanda'), withparticipantsputtingon
improvisedmake-upand dress.Thesesimplifiedaspectsofstage-craft
wereignoredbythepeopleas theydid notdilutetheactingtalentof
theartisteswhodepictedthroughtheirart,thelifeofthepeopleand

LITERARYAND THEATREMOVEMENTSIN COLONIALANDHRA 71
conveyedthemessageofthedawnofa newera,i.e.,socialistsociety.
A studyofthesemovementswould also revealthechangesbrought
aboutin thecontentand formofliterarycreations,an increasingbias
towardstheproblemsof thepeople, use of spokendialectin both
literaryformsand theatrescripts,newgenresofliteraturesuchas free
verse,givingup conventionalrulesofprosodyand metre.8Thechange
informand contentand a closecollaborationbetweenthemovements
werenecessitatedtomeetthedemandsofpopularculture.A newcrpo
ofwriters,emergingfroma differentsocialmileu,neverthelessfrom
literatesectionsof middle and lower middle classes and theatre
artists,comingsometimesfromeven the semi-literateand the so-
called lower castesand oppressedsegmentsof the society.This is
importantas itexplainsthenew toneand vigourofthenew literary
and artforms,modelledon folktraditionand totallydifferentfrom
theexistingforms.
Beforewe getto knowthebackgroundofthegenesisofthenew
movements,we need know,thoughbriefly,the changesthatwere
broughtaboutin Teluguliteratureduringthemodemperiodand its
positionand status.Beginning,broadlyfromthemiddleofthe19th
century,withVeerasalingamand hiscontemporarieswhotransformed
the traditionalcharacterof TeluWulanguage and literatureinto a
modern tool of communication,Gurajada Apparao and Gidugu
Ramamurthyintroducedtheuse ofspokendialectand producedfine
literaryworks of lasting value. If kandukuri Veerasalingam
broadenedthebase ofliteraturebytakingup newliteraryformssuch
as thenovel,play,satire,essay,Gurajada throughhis new literary
formcalled 'mutyalasaralu',was the founderof modem poetryin
Telugu.His Kanyasulkam(brideprice),was thefirstmodem Telugu
play thatespoused thecause of social reform.11SimilarlyGidugu
VenkataRamamurthydemocratisedtheTelugulanguagebylaunching
an organisedmovementto populariseand makethespokendialect
accepted by scholarsand others.12The effortsof Gidugu, in this
direction,assumedsuchlargeproportionsthatGurajadadaimed itas
'people's movement'and said he would notgive up itsespousal to
please anybody.13The effortsof thetrio-Kandukuri,Gurajada and
Gidugu,areacclaimedas epoch-makingand theyarerightlydescribed
as thefoundersofa new epoch in modem Telugu literature.Their
effortsshould be understoodin therealmof buildingup a broad
cultural movementinto which the so far neglected sections of
populationaredrawn.TheirmodemisinginfluencesliberatedTelugu
language and literaturefrom the fettersof medievalism and
contributedtothegrowthofpoliticalconsciousnessamongtheTelugu
writers.
From1870sonwardstheliteraryproductionstartedrespondingto
thedemandsof thetheatremovement,forthemainconcernof the
theatretroupeswas toenactthetraditional/mythologicalstoriesin a

72 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
non-SanskritizedTeluguproseand poemsso thata popularcultural
responsecould be generatedto theirmovementin society.The best
exampleis thelifehistoryof ChilakamarthiLakshminarasimham.14
Here,of course,the theatremovementdoes not identifywithany
politicalmovements,perhapsdue totheverynatureoftheirthemes.
Withthe heraldingof nationalistliteratureapproximatelyfrom
1905 onwards, a number of writers like Chilakamarti
Lakshminarasimham, Garimella Satyanarayana, Sripada
KrishnamurthySastry, Damaraju Pundarikakashudu published
poetical worksand plays incorporatingnationalistideology.'5By
1920s,Teluguliteraturereacheda stagewhen,barringa fewtalented
poetswho werestillwritingromanticisingthepast,creativewriters
carvedouta clearpathofputtingliteraturetonotonlysocialusesbut
even makinguse ofit to politicalcauses. Here thetheatrebecomes
'message bearers' of Gandhian politics.16This was a significant
breakthroughintheliterarymovementsincolonialAndhra.
The 1920sbroughtaboutfurthersignificantchangesin thefieldof
Teluguliteraturewiththeestablishmentofa socialiststatein soviet
Russia.TheimpactoftheBolshevikrevolutioncouldbe clearlyseenn
thewritingsofcontemporarywriterspublishedin newspapersand
journals such as Krishna Patrikaand Andhra Patrika and, in
particular,theirannual numbers.17Unnava Lakshminarayana's
Malapalli (Harijan Hamlet) reflectedthe influenceof Bolshevism.
Malapalliis thefirstTelugunovelpublishedduringthe1920s,which,
throughone of thecharactersin thenovel,expoundedthesocialist
principlesof economicand social equalityand the eliminationof
exploitation.A Gandhianby faithand an activepoliticalagitator,
Unnava,forthefirsttime,showedthealternativepathofeconomic
developmentandevenindicatedthatfailuretoensureeconomicjustice
tothelargenumberoftheexploitedin societywould lead toviolent
revolutions.18He juxtaposedGandhismand socialismand finally
resolvedin favouroftheformer.Thisindicatedthetypicaldilemma
oftheintellectualsofthisperiod.
The post-Bolshevikrevolution period and the political and
economicchangesthatwerebroughtabout,bothat thenationaland
internationallevels, provided the necessarybackgroundto the
emergenceofpopularliteraryand theatremovementsin Andhra.As
mentioned earlier, creative works such as Malapalli clearly
prescribedthesocialistideology.The IndianCommunistmovement
began to emerge during the 1920s. Socialist ideas throughthe
theoreticalworksof Marx,Engels and Lenin were being secretly
smuggledintoAndhra,whichinturnweretranslatedandpublishedin
Telugu.19 Secretpublishinghouses with printingfacilitieswere
established.Booksweresold amongtheeducatedsectionsespecially
theyouthand students.Andhra,beingpredominantlyan agricultural
region,thenationalmovement,had mainlydrawnintotheirranksthe

richpeasantrywiththesupportof smallpeasantryand agricultural
labourers.20Thiswas evidencedin theirparticipationin Palnad and
PedanandipaduSatyagrahamovementsduringthenon-cooperation
movementof1921-22.WhentheJusticeparty,led byZamindarsand
landlords,was predominent,peasantsinAndhrawereorganisedbythe
CongressSocialistPartyand theagriculturallabourbytheCommunist
Partyfrom1934.In the post-CivilDisobedienceperiod,when the
CommunistPartyofIndiawasbannedin1934,Communistsconducted
theiractivitiessecretlyamong workers,peasants and agricultural
labourclassesandsteadilybuiltup thebase forMarxistideology.21
In the wake of the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience
movement,generalfrustrationand disenchantmentwiththeCongress
policiesgrewamongthepeople. A sizable sectionof Congressmen
particularlytheyouthweredrawntowardstheCommunistmovement.
In 1935 the firstconferenceof the AndhraCommunistPartymet
secretlyat Kakinada.22This was precededby theAndhraCongress
SocialistPartyconferenceand also the AndhraYouthConference,
besidesthevariousotherKisan,TradeUnionand otherconferencesin
whichCommunistswereactivelyinvolved.23Thisestablishesthefact
thatthecommunistparty,by thistime,was an organisedpolitical
forcespreadingitsactivitiesinseveralspheresofpubliclifeincluding
theculturalfront.Thus the 1930sbroughta radical changein the
thinkingofthewriters.Unemploymentand economicmiseryofthe
people in the wake of the GreatDepressiondrove the writersto
Socialism.TheyhaveobservedthegrowthofSovietUnionintoa state
withouteconomicexploitationand believedstronglythatSocialism
wastheonlysolutiontotheproblemsofthepoor.
Thenew mood was reflectedin thetranslationofEugenePottier's
internationalanthemoftheworkingclassintoTelugu.24
Alltheorphanswhoaresuffering
fromthepangsofhunger,arise
AtthesametimeanotheryoungpoetPendyalaLokanathamwhowas
drawntowardssocialistideaswrotea poemaboutthecollectivepower
oftheworkingclassZ25
Ifall theworkersunitewilltherebe dearthofbread?
Writerslike Tummala Venkataramaiah,who later became an
activistin theprogressivewritersmovementand also itssecretary,
wrotea poemabouttheredflag,thesymboloftoilingmasses.
should fly,shouldflyour red flagtillthereis last breathin the
throatof workersand warmblood flowingin theveinsof poor
peasant,shouldfly,shouldfly,ourredflag.
At aboutthesame time,in 1934,Gorki's'Mother'was translatedby
KrovvidiLingarajuwho was, to beginwith,activein theCongress

74 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
SocialistPartyand who laterJoinedtheCommunistParty.'Amma'
(Mother),nameofthetranslation,becamea householdnovelformen,
womenandyouth.27Againin1934anothersignificantpublication,this
timean anthologyofsongs,Rytu-Bhajanavali(BhajansofPeasants)
was published by N.G. Ranga. Ranga was activelyinvolved in
organisingpeasantsall overAndhrainto'RytuRakshanaSamithis'
(PeasantProtectionLeagues) and thisanthologyconsistsofsongsby
several peasant activistwriterswho were involved in struggles
against landlords, Zamindars and the Government.What is
significantis thata good numberof contributorsin thisanthology
becameleadingwritersoftheprogressivewritersassociationin the
1940s.Thesongsdepictedeconomicoppressiononpeasants,especially
in thecontextoftheGreatDepression,and projectedsocialismas the
alternativeframeworkforthewell beingofpeasants.Its popularity
couldbe gaugedintermsofthefivequickeditionsithadinfouryears
between1934and 1937.Tummala,a poetalso wroteaboutthefallin
pricesofagriculturalproductsandconsequentdeclineinagricultureand
excessivetaxation.29
Nellori Venkataramanaidu,the stalwart of anti-Zamindari
struggleofVenkatagiriinNelloredistrict,declared.30
We do notwantthisZamindarisystem
GarimellaSatyanarayana,themostpopularofthepoetsoftheperiod
whose songs became the day to day renderingsof people wrote
violentlydenouncingtheBritishrule.31
Wedo notwantthewhiteman'srule
Thissongwas bannedbytheBritish;thepoetchargedwithtreason
was imprisoned.His otherwellknownsongadvocatedforthedawnof
thedaywhenlandsand richeswouldbelongtoallpeople,thusopenly
exhortingpeopletotaketosocialistideals.32
Intheirquestforsocialandeconomicjustice,thewriterswenttothe
extentofquestioningtheexistenceofGod.AccordingtothemifGod is
theembodimentofloveandkindnessanda dispenserofequaljusticeto
all,theglaringeconomicinequalitieswillnotbe toleratedbyHim.33
Asseenfromtheabovefewexamples,thelanguageusedinthesongs
is quitesimple,withfullofTeluguidiomsappealingdirectlyto the
peoplewhocouldeasilysingthem.
Simultaneously,thedecadeofthe1930salso witnessedtheriseofa
numberof socialist left-orientedjournals such as Vauhini (ed.
GarimellaSatyanarayana),Prabha(ed. Gadde Lingaiah),Jwala(ed.
Muddukrishna)and CommunistParty'sjounal Navasakti;publishing
houses like Progress Publishers,Viswa Sahityamala,etc., were
established.34
Thenecessaryliteraryclimatewas thusprevalentevenduring1930s
fortheopenlaunchingoftheProgressivewriter'smovement.A strong

indicationwas thegrowinginfluenceofsocialistideasamongeducated
youth,intelligentsiaand also peasantsand workingclasses.The civil
disobediencemovementdid notleavea lastingimpressionon literary
world.On theotherhand,theliteraryworldwas markedbya growing
disillusionmentwithGandhianideologyand was in favourofmore
radicalchange.The influencesofliterarytrendsfromotherpartsof
thecountrytoo had an impactover theirthinking.PremChand's
'Godan'whichdepictedpeasantmiseryand penuryand,inparticular,
his last literarypiece beforehis death,Mahajani Sabhayata,lefta
deeper impressionon theirminds.Mahajani Sabhyatawas a bitter
critiqueof capitalistprofitmotive with the appreciationof the
socialist experiment.35 Similarly the writings of poets like
MadkholkarfromMaharastrawho, in turn,was influencedby the
Bombay labour movement had reached them. The Bengali
intelligentsia,itis stated,was neverseriouslyinfluencedbyGandhi.
Tagorekepthimselfalooffromthethickof theCivil Disobedience
movement.Moreoverhis lettersfromSoviet Russia which were
appreciativeof the new experimentbeing carriedout there,lent
support to the growingpositive feelingtowards Socialism. The
BengaliliterarymonthlyParichaystartedin 1931was moreconcerned
about internationaldevelopmentssuch as theworld wide struggle
againstFascismand questionslikeMarxisttheoryand practice.
The new thinkingamong the writersin differentpartsof India
necessitated the startingof an All-India left-leaningwriters
association,theProgressiveWritersAssociation(PWA),bya groupof
UrduspeakingintellectualsledbySazzad Zahirand MulkRaj Anand.
However,beforetheAssociationhelditsfirstsessionin Lucknowin
1936,underthepresidentshipof Premchand,the manifestoof the
IndianProgressiveWriters'Associationwas draftedinLondonin1935.
About50IndiansstudyinginEngland,afterconsultingRalphFox,met
and finalisedthe manifestowhich was later published in Left
Review.36Thoughtbrief,it is welldraftedand reflectsthehopesand
aspirationsoftherisingcropofnewgenerationofwritersinIndia.
Radicalchangesare talkingplace in Indian society.... It is the
dutyofIndianwriterstogiveexpressiontothechangestakingplace
inIndianlifeand toassistthespiritofprogressinthecountry....
Itis theobjectofourassociationtorescueliteratureand otherarts
fromthepriestly,academicand decadentclasses in whose hands
theyhave degeneratedso long,to bringtheartsintotheclosest
touchwiththepeople .... whileclaimingtobe theinheritorsof
the best traditionsof Indian civilization, we shall criticise
ruthlessly,in all its political,economicand culturalaspects,the
spirit of reaction in our country. . . We believe that the new
literatureof India must deal with the basic problemsof our
existence today-the problem of hunger and poverty,social

76 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
backwardnessand politicalsubjection,so thatit mayhelp us to
understandthoseproblems,andthroughsuchunderstandinghelpus
toact.37
To thefirstsessionofPWA,AbburiRamakrishnaRao alone attended
fromAndhra.It was Abburiwhobecamea linkin theinitialstages
between the national organisationand the Andhra writersand
providedthemnecessaryintellectualsupportto startthe PWA.38
Tagore,in 1938,senta warmandunusuallyself-criticalmessagetothe
PWAconference,regrettinghisownrelativeisolationfromthemasses.
The All India PWA attaineditsgreateststrengthin Urdubecauseof
itsinter-regionalspanand itsleadingfiguresincludedHasratMohani,
FirqGorakhpuri,KishenChander,and KaifiAzmi.Its contribution
wasimmenseintermsofoutput,newthemesandcontentandform.This
maybe illustratedby thesuccessfulconferenceof peasantpoetsat
Faridabadin 1938.TherevolutionarymushairasbyKaifiAzmiamong
Bombayworkerswhichforeshadowedthemajorcommunisteffortsat
mobilizationby folkculturethroughthe IPTA (Indian People's
Theatreof Arts)in 1940s.The PWA was also strongin Bengaland
Keralawheretheleftmovementswerecomparativelystronger.
In Andhrait tooksevenyears(afterthefirstSessionofAll India
PWA in 1936)tobringtogetherall thesocialist-orientedwritersinto
theAssociationand thefirstconferencewas heldinTenali(a coastal
Andhratownanda culturalcentreinGunturdistrict)in1943underthe
presidentshipofTapi DharmaRao.39As statedearlier,evenwithout
a formalorganisation,poetslikeSriSriwhois consideredas theepoch
makerof theprogressiveliterature,werewritingpoems from1929
onwards.40His firstpoem was 'Suptastikalu'followedby 'Jayabheri'
and 'Maroprapancham'.Sri Sri Was followedby many talented
writerswho, pursuing the same technique, made everlasting
contributionsto themovement.New journalssuch as Abhyudaya,
TeluguTalli wereadded to theexistinglistof literaryjournals.41
Hundredsofliteraryworksin theformofpoetry,plays,shortstories
and fiction,literarycriticismwere written.The contentwas clear
aboutthenew society-an alternativeto theexistingunequal socio-
economicand politicalorder.Undertheinfluenceof Marxism,the
writersmade sincereefforts,thoughlackingin theoreticalrigour,to
takethemessageofsocialismtothemasses.Itwas a new voice,fresh
and pure,withstrongcommitmenttousherina classlessand casteless
societywherethecreativefacultiesofhumanbeingswould blossom
withouthindrance.All thosedrawnintothePWA werenota partof
theCommunistPartycadre.Someofthemwere'fellowtravellers'and
somewerenoteventhat.Quitea fewofthemweretraditionalistsin
thesensethattheywerebornand broughtup in theatmosphereof
traditionallearmingand yetcameintothePWA as theygraspedthe
quintessenceof Marxismin termsof broad humanismthatwould

translatetheancientsaying'sarvejana sukhinobhavantu'intoreality.
TheCommunistPartylinkagesweretherebutonlyina covertfashion
and infacttheselinkageshelpedthePWAtogetintotheprogramme
of mass contactthroughwhichwritersfelta sense of fulfillment,
which,afterall is theultimateaim ofanycreativeendeavour.What
indeed the remarkable achievement of the movement is the
realisationofalmostall writersthatall artincludingliteraturehas a
social purpose.42Thatartformsshould be expressedin easy and
uninhibitedmanner,discardingtheconventionalfettersofgrammar
and prosodyand literaryembellishments.To drivehomethispoint
and also toprovidesoundtheoreticalgrounding,thePWAin Andhra
organisedliteraryschoolswhichincludedin theircoursecontenta
criticalstudy of ancientliterature,knowledge of social sciences
including philosophy and historyand historicalmaterialism.43
Eminentliteraryfiguersactedas teachersin theseschools.Untilthe
CommunistPartyopenlyinterferedwiththeworkingofthePWA,in
no wayCommunistpartyinhibiteditsgrowthon a broadunitedfront
model.
INDIAN PEOPLE'STHEATREASSOCIATION
Irrespectiveoftimeand space,therehas beenan activelinkbetween
dominantliteraryproductionandpopulardrama.Duringthelate19th
century,to startwith,playsdepictingepic themeswere produced.
Theybecamepopularas theywerepattemed,primarily,on themodel
of folkfromof 'Veedhinatakam'(open stage or streetplay). The
productionoftheseplaysbecamea partofthecollectiveimagination
ofthepeople.Bytheendofthe19thcenturya noticeablechangecame
aboutin thecontentofplaysas theynow tookup thecause ofsocial
reform.'Prahasanas' of Veerasalingam and Chilakamarti and
Gurjada Apparao's 'Kanyasulkam'are only a few examples to be
mentionedin this regard.44Once the nationalmovementgained
momentum,plays portrayingpatriotismon themes relatingto
Chandragupta,Shivaji,JhansiRani,Tilak,Punjabatrocitiesand the
likewereproduced.4UndertheimpactofGandhianphilosophyand
struggles,playswereproducedon themessuchas untouchabilityand
village reconstruction.As a part of nationalmovement,adopting
peasant problemsas the subjectmatter,Rytubidda(peasant) was
writtenbySabnavisRamaRao and stagedduringthe1920s.46Bythe
1930s,anotherstreamofwriters,undertheinfluenceofthewritingsof
Ibsen,BernardShaw, Chekovand also Freudbroughtout quite a
numberofplaysadvocating women'slibertyand rightsincluding,
divorce,and property.47suchplay-wrightsincludedP.V.Rajamannar,
Malladi Avadhani, Bellary Raghava, Chalam, Kallakuri
HanumanthaRao,and GaliBalaSundaraRao whocouldbe calledthe
earlyfeministwritersinTelugu.48

78 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
Bythe1940sthepoliticalscenario,bothin India and abroad,had
changed.Theworldsituationunderwenta radicalchange.Asdiscussed
earlierthespreadofMarxistideas and people'sstrugglesresultedin
theestablishmentofthehegemonyoftheCommunistPartyofIndia.
The PWA,throughitsnationwideactivities,had spreadthemessage
ofsocialismand worldpeace (anti-Fascistpropaganda)inthewakeof
theoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWar.Thestruggleforlefthegemony
requiredthehelp of thetheatre,thepowerfulinstrumentof visual
arts-to supplementtheliteraryactivitiesof thePWA,whichwere
hithertoconfinedprimarilyto middleclass intellectualsand also, to
someextent,totheliterateand marginallytoa fewpeoplefromlower
middleand middleand poorpeasantand workingclass sections.By
and large,themajorsectionsoflowerorderwereleftoutofitsimpact.
The IPTA,foundedin 1943in Bombaywas meantto fillthisgap.49
Approachingthemassesthroughpeople'stheatrewas themainaimof
thismovementand as suchitwas tobe an adjuncttothePWAwhich
was alreadyworkingon theliteraryfront.50The All India People's
TheatreAssociationConference(1943) declaredinitsdraftresolution
that'itrecognisestheurgencyoforganisingpeople'stheatremovement
throughoutthewholeofIndiaas themeansofrevitalisingthestage
and thetraditionalartsand makingthemat oncetheexpressionand
organiserofourpeople'sstruggleforfreedom,culturalprogressand
economic justice.' The organisersidentifiedthe fascistforcesas
'enemiesoffreedomandculture,progressandeconomicjustice',51and
the'internalrepressionbyan aliengovernment'tobe foughtagainst.
Theywantedtoworkforthe'revivalofthefolkarts,masssingingand
open air stage'to achievetheiraim.52An all India Committeewas
constituted,thecompositionof whichshows thatall leadingmass
organisationssuch as AITUC, Kisan Sabha, PWA were associated
withit and representativesfromdifferentprovinceswereincluded.
TheprovincialorganisingCommitteeswerealsoformed.53
FromAndhraonlyGarikapatiRajaRao attendedtheconference,but
intheorganisingcommitteetwootherswereincluded,Krishnamurthy
and Chandalavada Pitchaiah.54 The IPTA in Andhra ('Praja
Natyamandali') revivedtheold folkformsofartnumberingabout
thirty.The artistswere youngand mostof themcame fromrural
workingmasses.Theywrotesongsandcomposedmusic,scriptedplays
andskitsandpresentedthembeforelargegatherings.Itindeedbecame
a people'smovementregisteringa breakthroughinAndhra'scultural
arena.Revivedformsoffolkartreachedpeoplewitha socialpurpose.
Largelybased on thecountryside,drawingitsworkersand artistes
fromthemiddle,lowermiddleand poorpeasantrywithlittleor no
formaleducation,thePrajanatyamandalisucceededin popularising
the Communist Party programmes and politics through its
performances.55Itssuccesswasas muchduetoitsclasscompositionas
also due to the power of mediumthroughwhichtheyoperated,

UTERARYAND THEATREMOVEMENTSIN COLONIALANDHRA 79
namely,thetraditionalpopularperformingarts.Ofall theartsforms
theyadopted,'BurraKatha' (Bardicrecitals)was themostpopular
itemas itincludes,a story,music,rhythmicmovementsofbody,make-
up and also thesatiricalremarksthatplayersmakeon contemporary
politics.56It was enrichedby SunkaraSatyanarayana,thepoetwho
wrote most powerful and popular burra kathascriptssuch as
Kashtajivi (the toiler)Alluri Seetharama Raju, Veeresalingam
(Biographyof a social reformer)BengalFamine,Tanya, (Russian
heroine),and Nasser, the performer.About halfa dozen 'dalams'
(squads) wereperformingthroughoutAndhra.The 'Harikatha'form
was popularisedby KosuriPunnaiahand 'PittalaDora' and 'Koya
Dora' formsbyKogantiGopalakrishnayyawhoseperformancesinthe
firstconferenceofIPTAatBombaywerehighlyappreciated.57
Activitiesof 'Praja Natyamandali'reached a peak during the
Telanganaarmedstruggle(1946-51)whenmanymorepopularformsof
culture were used.58 Particularmentionshould be made of the
phenomenalsuccessoftheplay Maabhoomi(our land) authoredby
Sunkaraand Vasireddy.It stirredand rousedtheurbanitesand the
ruralmasses alike withits splendid performances,even winning
laurels fromCongresspoliticiansand ministerswho proscribedit
later.59In one year,during1947,theplayMaabhoomi,was staged
aroundthousandtimesby 125troupesto an audienceoftwomillion
peoplewhich,accordingtoK.A.Abbas,wasa worldrecord.60
ThevigourandvitalityoftheTheatremovementcouldbe seenfrom
itsorganisationalnetworkfromthegrassrootslevel.Thereweremore
than two hundred village level branches. Each districthad a
coordinatingcommittee.The bodyat theprovincialleveloverseered
the work of the lower bodies. District trainingcentres were
organised.61Rigorousrehearsals,groupdiscussionsofthescriptand
attentionto minutedetailsin productionwerethehallmarksofthe
'PrajanatyaMandali'.Mutualrespect,close affinityand camaraderie
markedtheatmosphereamongthemembersof'dalams'(squads) who
used toruna commonmess.Aftera prolongeddiscussionwithinthe
CommunistParty,itwasdecidedthatrolesofwomenshouldbeplayed
onlybywomen.Women,inparticular,familywomenofyoungerage
becameactiveparticipantsin themovement.Womenactivelytook
part in the plays. They were also trained in the technique of
'Burrakatha'and exclusivefemalesquadsofthiswereorganised.62
ThegloriousepochoftheculturalrevivalinAndhra-bothliterary
and theatre-receiveda rude shockin 1948 when,along withthe
CommunistParty,all itsfrontorganisations,includingtheIPTA,were
bannedand largescale repressionwas unleashed.The officeswere
raidedand ransacked,artistesarrestedand someactivistsamongthem
killed,printingpressesand librariesweredestroyedwiththeresult
thatthewholemovementgotparalysedtemporarily.

80 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
The writersand artistswho had strongpartyaffiliationswent
undergroundandsomeofthemwerekilled.Theothersbecamepassive
and took to theirearlierprofessions.Quite a few of the talented
writers,actorsand otherartistesmigratedto Madrascityand to the
cinemaindustry.
Literatureand theatrein colonialAndhracan be dividedbroadly
intothreemainstages.
1. 1870-1920,Thetraditionaland socialreformthemesrelatingto
theearlyculturalfront.
2. 1920-1934, 'Message Bearers' for Gandhian politics and
dominantbourgeoisideology.
3. 1934-1948Movementsrefractedtheleftideologyand also the
shiftintheterrainofstruggleofhegemony.
In theforegoingaccountwe haveendeavouredtoanalysehow the
literatureand the theatreinteracted,one influencingtheotherin
relationtoshiftscomingup inthehegemonicstruggle.We lookedat
thenatureoftheworldviewpositedand propagatedbothinliterary
productionand populardrama.The worldviewas projectedby left
ideologyand reflectedin literatureand theatrefromthelate 1920s
onwardsbroughtabuta noticeableshiftinthecourseofthedominant
bourgeoisnationalistideology.Thiscouldbe seeninthewritingsofthe
dominantbourgeoisideologieswhentheywroteaboutproblemsof
untouchablesmainlytouchingupon theireconomicproblems.After
1934,a totalbreakcameaboutamonga sectionofintellectualswith
bourgeoisnationalistideology,who now advocated class-oriented
nationalism.The dominantnationalistideologywas anti-colonialbut
supportedtheexistingpro-propertyrelations.On theotherhand,the
leftideology,no doubt,was anti-colonialbutanti-dominantproperty
relations.
The struggleby theLeftsucceededonlyto a limitedextent.The
dominantnationalistideologyundertheimpactoftheLeftchallenge,
incorporatedintoitsagendatheproblemsofthepopularclasseswhich
could perhapsbe seen in themeasuressuchas Zamindariabolition,
promisestocarryoutlandreformsandand thelike.However,thereal
impactofthestruggle,as discussedinthepaper,was in therealmof
democratisationofculturethroughtherevivalofpeople'sartforms.
TheLeftideologywas takentothepeoplethroughtheseartforms.A
linkagebetweenideologyand struggleswas clearlyestablishedby
popularisingliteratureand theatrewhencreativewritersand artistes
wroteand spokein thelanguageofthepeople,depictingthroughart
formstheirbasic problems.Realismin literatureand art became
predominant,anditcamethroughpopularstruggle.
In thedistrictswheretheleftmovementwas popular,each village
had a smalllibrary,nightschool,youthassociationand a smalloffice
room equipped withminimumfurnitureand a couple of musical

instrumentssuchas harmonium,mridangam,tabla,etc.Rehearsalsof
artformssuchas drama,'burraktha'andgroupsingingwereconducted
there.Theybecamecentresofeducationaland culturalactivitiesin
thevillages,as centresofcounter-culture.Thousandsofartistssprang
up fromtheranksofcommonpeople.Itwas indeeda gloriouspeople's
culturalmovementin Andhra.The Lefthegemonicstrugglealso
includeda popularlibrarymovement.Numberoflow-pricededitions
on basics of science, philosophy,economicsand literaturewere
published.TranslationsofMarxistclassicsintoTeluguwerecarried
out.Sales weekswereorganised.Disseminationofprogressiveideas
was meantto bringabout the necessaryideological revolutionin
society.
Literatureand art are closely intertwinedwith people. Their
inseperablenatureleads to theadoptionof new culturalformsby
peopleintheirstrugglesforchange.Thiswas amplydemonstratedin
the case of popular culturalmovementsin Andhra.Thereforean
analysisofthesemovementswouldlead us toa studyofthestruggles
waged by theoppressedsectionsin thesociety,theirvictories and
failures.Thesetwomovementsowed theiroriginand growthto the
Communistmovementin Andhraand the Telangana strugglein
Hyderabadstate.Between1935and 1939,theCommunistsin India
adopted the popular-frontpoliciesas outlinedin theDutt-Bradley
thesis.Itwas preciselyduringthisperiodboththemovementsbecame
wellorganised.Progressivemindedand forwardlookingpeopleinthe
society came into the Communist party through the cultural
movement.63
I amgratefultomycolleagues,Dr P. SudhirandDr A. Muraliforgoing
throughthefirstdraftofthepaperandofferingusefulcomments.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. A numberofwell-researchedworksareavailableon thisaspectinTelugu.See
forexample,N. Gangadharam,lanapadageyaVangmayaVyasavali,(Telugu),
Rajahmundry,1961;R.V.S.Sundaram,AndhrulaJanapadaVignanam(Telugu),
Hyderabad,1983.
2. ChintaDikshitulu,Praja Vangmayamu(Tel), Vijayawada,1955.The book
focussesparticularattentionon popularwomen'sliteratureand also popular
traditionrelatingtochildren.
3. Forthisaspectsee in particular,Krishnasri(ed), StreelaPauranikapuPatalu
(Telugu),Hyderabad,1963;To. Donappa, JanapadaKala Sampada(Telugu)
Hyderabad,1987,(FirstEdn.1972).
4. Fora comprehensiveaccountofthis,see B. RamRaju,TeluguInapadaGehya
Sahityamu,Hyderabad,1978:N. Gangadharam,Aatalu-Patalu (Telugu),
Rajahmundry,1965.
5. Arudra,Prajaka1aloo-Pragathivaduloo(Telugu)Vijayawada,n.d.pp 139-72.

82 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
6. K.V.RamanaReddy,Mahodayam(Telugu)Vijayawada,1969,see in particular
chapterII, pp. 17-41Thebookis a masterlyaccountofthelifeand workof
GurajadaApparo.
7. K.V. Gopalaswamy(ed.), TeluguVagmayam(Telugu),Tenali,1960,articleon
thehistoryofTeluguplays,pp.272-312.
8. A discussionofthesesignificantchangesinTeluguliteraturearecarriedoutby
many.To citean importantsource,seeK.V.RamanaReddy'sdetailedarticleon
'ProgressivePoetry-AnAnalyticalReview',In Bbhyudaya(monthlyjournalof
PWA,Andhra),special issue of theV PWA conference,Vijayawada,1955,
pp.86-112.
9. V. Ramakrishna,Socal ReforminAndhra,New Delhi,1983,pp. 71-74;Also
V.R.Narla,Veeresalingam,New Delhi,1968.
10. KV. RamanaReddy,Mahodayam,op.cit.,See fora discussionon this,Chapter
IV,pp.274-327.
11. Ibid.,pp.361-426.
12. G.V. Sitapati,HistoryofTeluguLiterature,New Delhi,1968,see chapterIX
'The Modem TeluguMovement'.pp. 139-45;ChekuriRama Rao, Marosari
GiduguRamamurthy(Telugu),a collectionof articleson thecontributionof
GidugutothemodernTelugumovement,Hyderabad,1968.
13. A Suryarao,(ed.,) GurajadaRachanalu-Lekhalu,(Telugu),Vijayawada,1958,
pp. 105-106.
14. ChilakamarthiLakshminarasimham,Sweeyacharitramu,(Autobiography,
Telugu),Visakhpatnam,1957).
15. Severalworkshavebeenwrittenonnationalmovementand Teluguliterature,
Mostoftheseworkshavepresentedmainlytheliteraryoutputoftheperiod
withoutmuch analysis. See in this contextM. Subbareddy,Telugulo
JateeyodyamaKavitvam(Telugu) (The impactof National Movementon
ModernTeluguPoetry),Tirupati,1982.
16. A Murali,Non-Cooperationin Andhrain 1920-22:NationalistIntelligentsia
and theMobilizationofPeasantry',in TheIndianHistoricalReview,Vol. XII,
No. 1-2,July1985,January1986,pp. 188-217;s.TheodoreBaskaran,TheMessage
Bearers:The NationalPoliticsand theEntertainmentMedia in SouthIndia
1880-1945,Madras,1981.
17. For details see K. Satyanarayana,Artha Satabda Kalamlo Andrulapaini
OctoberViplava Prabhavam,(Telugu), (hereafterreferredto as October
Viplavam),Madras, 1973. The book gives in briefthe literaryand other
influencesofOctoberRevolutiononAndhra.
18. K.V. RamanaReddy(ed.,) UnnavaRachanalluKonni(Telugu),Kaval, 1979;
Bangorey,Malapallipai Nishedhalu,(Telugu),Madras,1979.Also A. Murali,
'ChangingPerceptionsand Radicalisationof the National Movementin
Andhra,1922-34',inSocialScientist,August1988.
19. K. Satyanarayana,OctoberViplavam,op.cit.,pp. 38-40;K. Satyanarayanain
thefirstvolumeofhisHistoryoftheCommunistMovementin AndhraPradesh
(Telugu)(hereafterreferredtoas CommunistMovement),Vijayawada,1983,
discussedin detailin II and III chaptersthebackgroundoftheoriginsofthe
Communistmovementin Andhra.In appendiceshe also provideduseful
documentsinthisregard.
20. Interestinginformationonlthisisprovidedinabundancewithparticularsofthe
activitiesofagriculturallabourorganisation,studentsandyouthwingsandalso
detailsabouttheCongresssocialistpartyinwhichtheCommunistswereactive.
See Ibid.,ChapterIV,pp. 106-66.
21. V. KrishnaRao,Communismin AndhraPradesh,Hyderabad,1989,p. 7. The
AndhraCommunistPartywasofficiallyorganisedin1934.
22. K. Satyanarayana,CommunistMovement,op.cit.,pp. 126-27and 153.

23. Thepoemwas translatedbyB. NaliniKanthaRao,a studentat Kakinadaat
theinstanceofP. Sundaraiah.Ibid.,Appendix,12,pp. 233-34,Arudra,op.cit.,
pp.142and157-58.
24. See Kambhampati,CommunistMovement,op.cit,Appendix-7,pp.208-10.The
Poem was firstpublishedin Prabha,fortnightly,5 June,1935. Pendyala
Lokanathamwrotethispoemstressingthepoweroftheunitedworkingclass.
He is consideredas thefirstworkingclasspoetin Andhra.Forbiographical
particularssee K.V. RamanaReddy,AdhunikayugamloKavilokam(Telugu),
Nellore,1984,pp. 19-24.
25. See Kambhampati,CommunistMovement,op.cit.,Appendix-11,p. 232.This
poemwas also firstpublishedin Prabha20 June1935.Prabhawas editedby
Gudde Lingaiah.Thejournalwas startedduringtheban on theCommunist
Party.Itservedthepartyin disseminatinginformationon partypoliticsand
was also publishingthe writingsof budding poets with socialistideas.
Linagaiahwas thesecretaryoftheKrishnadistrictCongressSocialistparty.
26. Gorky'sMotherwas earliertranslatedin a summaryformby Tummala
VenkataramaiahCalled Matruhridayam(mother'sheart).See fordetailson
thisArudra,op.cit.,p. 160.
27. N.G. Ranga,(ed.) RytuBhajanavali,(Telugu),Nidubrolu,1949,(12thedition).
Itwas firstpublishedin1934.OntheactivitiesofN.G.Rangaamongpeasantsin
GunturdistrictseeKambhampati,CommunistMovement,op.cit.,117-18.
28. N.G.Ranga,ed.,op.cit.
29. Ibid.
30. Jatiya Geethamulu (Telugu) (Volume of 40 National songs),
Rajamahendravaram,n.d.,p. 12.
31. On the lifeand workof GarimellaSatyanarayanasee, Ch. Radhakrishna
Sarma,GrimellaSahityam(Telugu)Madras,1989.
32. Ibid.
33. N.G. Ranga,op.cit.Narla VenkateswaraRao, a writerand a well known
journalistwroteNetashya(RussiaToday)inJuly1934,highlyappreciatingthe
socialiststate.Thebookwas bannedwithinfourmothsafterthepublication.
34. Kambhampati,CommunistMovement,op.cit.,pp. 116 and 163.Manymore
detailsofthepublishinghousesofthisperiodaregivenin K. Satyanarayana's
historyof the CommunistMovement,Volume 2, 1936-42,pp. 291-93. A
KameshwaraRao established'AtivadaGrandhamandali'in Guntur,Ashwini
KumarDatta's'PragatiPrachuranaluin Nidamarru,WestGodavariDistrict,
ProletarianSeries in Bheemavaramby Dharh Sririamurthyare other
publishers.
35. WehavenodefiniteinformationwhetherornotthewrifingsofPremchandwere
translatedintoTelugu.Nevertheless,itis knownthatby1935thattherewere
regularculturalcontactsbetweentheNorthandtheSouth.
36. Suddhi Pradhanin his MarxistCulturalMovementin India-Chroniclesand
Documents(1936-47),Calcutta,1979,publishedthemanifestoin an amended
forminpp.20-21andaddeda partoftheoriginaltextinpp.97-98.Forthefull
textoftheoriginalmanifesto,seeArudra,op.cit.162-63.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.,pp.158and161.
39. Fordetailssee, Y. Prasad (ed.) CollectionofDocumentsofPWAfor50 years
(Tel)broughtoutbyA.P.P.W.A.,Hyderabad,1988,pp. 19-28.
40. K.V. RamanaReddy,(ed.,) Sri Sri Sahityam(CompleteworksofSri Sri)-2
(poetry),1933-1945,Madras,1970,inparticularseeIntroduction.Alsosee fora
criticalappraisal of Sri Sri' s work K.V. Ramana Reddy, Jagannadha
Radhachakralu(CariotWheelsofJagannadha),Vijaywada,1986.
41. V. Prasad,(ed.,)op.cit.

84 SOCIAL SCIENTIST
42. Fora comprehensiveandcriticalassessmentofthePWAsee V. NarayanaRao,
TeluguKavitaViplavalaSwaroopam,(Telugu), Hyderabad,1987, Chapter
VII, pp. 120-44.Also ChandramVyasalu,(Telugu) (articlesof Maddukuri
ChandrasekharaRao), Vijayawada,1974.
43. ForfulldetailsseeV. Prasad,op.cit.,pp. 59-83.Theschoolwas organisedfora
mothfromMay 11thtoJune10th1946at Pedapudiin Gunturdistrict.Devi
Prasad Roy Choudaryinauguratedthe school. Eminentliteraryfigures,
historiansartists,Gadar Partyactivistssuch as Nidadavolu VenkataRao,
Korada Ramakrishnaiah, Sripada Gopalakrishnamurthy, Sri Sri
KodavatigantiKutumbaRao, MallampalliSomasekharaSarma,Chilukuri
NarayanaRao, MadhavapeddiGokhalae,Darsi Chenchaiah,to mention a
few,actedas teachers.Te participantsincludedyoungand promisingwriters
and artistswhoare tobecomelatertheleadinglightsin thepopularliterary
andtheatremovementsinAndhra.
44. M. RadhakrishnaMurthy'sarticle,'TeluguloSamajikaNatakalu'is Telugu
NatakaSahityam(Collectionof lecturearticles)(Telugu),Hyderabad,1986,
pp. 20-43;AlsoK.K.Ranganathacharulu's(ed.,)NooreUaTelugunadu(hundred
yearsofAndhra)(Telugu),Hyderabad,1984.pp. 131-56.
45. Ibid.,alsoM. RadhakrishnaMurthy,op.cit.,p. 30.
46. Ibid.,p. 33.
47. Ibid.,pp.31-32.
48. Ibid.
49. SudhiPradhan,op.cit.,pp. 129-30.
50. InterviewwithK.A. AbbasbyKausarKhanin IPTA IX NationalConference
andFestivalSouvenir,Hyderabad,1986,pp. 38-39.
51. SudhiPradhan,op.cit.,pp. 130-32.
52. Ibid.
53. TheGeneralSecretaryoftheAITUC,N.M. Joshiwas electedthepresidentof
theIPTA.BankimMukherjee,PresidentAllIndiaKisanSabha,S.A. Dange,the
PresidentoftheAITUC,Saj)adZaheer,theGeneralSecretary,All IndiaPWA,
ArunBose,theGeneralSecretary,AISF weretakenas themembersof the
ExecutiveCommitteeoftheITA. Ibid.,pp. 132-34.
54. Ibid.,p. 134.
55. All LeagueforRevolutionaryCulture,InauguralConferenceSouvenir, New
Delhi,1 Oct, 1983;Also, Krishna,PrajanatyamandaliGnapakalu,(Telugu)
Hanumakonda,1984,p. 12. The authoran activistof IPTA recordedhis
reminiscencesinthis.
56. Ibid.,pp.9 and21-22.SudhiPradhan,op.cit.,pp.273-
57. Sudhi Pradhangives a detailed accountof theseperformancesin Ibid.,
pp. 354-0.
58. Thisaspecthas beenelaboratelydealtwithbymanypeopleofwhichonlya
few referencesare givenhere.JayadhirTirumalaRao threewell researched
booksbased on extensivefieldworkare,Prajakala-RoopaluPatalu(Telugu),
Hyderabad 1987,TelenganaRytangaPortam(Telugu), Hyderabad,1988)
TelenganaPorataPatalu (Telugu), Hyderabad 1990. Also see D.V. Rao,
TElenganaPrajala SayudhaporataCharitra,Hyderabad,1988,pp. 519 and
576-793,KVR,TelenganaPortam-Sahityam(Telugu),Guntur,1984.
59. Vasireddy,Sunkaa, Maabhoomi(playinTelugu),Vijayawada,1984(Fristedn.
1947);See PratapReddy'sarticle'People'sTheatreStarsthePeople'in IPTA
Souvenir,op.dt.,p. 46.
60. M. RadhakrishnaMurthy'sarticle,op.cit.,p. 34.
61. K.K.Ranganathacharyulu'sartide,op.at.,pp. 143-45.
62. Krishanop.cit.,pp. 9 and 21-23; forfurtherdetails see Kambhampati,
CommunistMovement,Vol.2,pp.301-303.

63. Examplesare many.A remarkablecollectionofautobiographicalaccountsof
twelvepeoplepublishedin1946revealthisfact.TheycameintotheCommunist
partfromdifferentprofessionssuchas medicine,law,agricultureand labour.
Some of themare poets and singersand also housewives.Theybelongto
differentreligionsand also castes,See MukkamalaNagabhushanam,ed.,Nenu
CommunistElaayyanu,(Telugu),(How did I becomea Communist),Bezawada,
1946.

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