2. Chapter 9: Language
Lecture Outline
Organization of Language
Phonology (音韻學)
Words
Syntax (句法)
Sentence Parsing
Biological Roots of Language
Language and Thought
3. Chapter 9: Language
Language
Unique to humans
Present in all cultures
Essential for knowledge and culture
Without it, cultural transmission of information and
the acquisition of knowledge would be much more
limited
4. The Organization of Language
Thoughts become sounds
Sounds become thoughts
HOW? Hierarchical organization
5. The Organization of Language
Sentence—sequences of words
Word—smallest free form
Morpheme (詞素)— smallest unit of
meaning
Phoneme (音素)— smallest unit of
sound
6. The Organization of Language
Hierarchical, with each level composed of other
sublevels
7. Phonology
Flow of air from lungs
Modulation
of air by
mouth
and nose
Production of phonemes
8. Phonology
Voicing
Whether vocal folds (聲帶) vibrate ([z], [d], [b], [v])
Or not ([s], [t], [p], [f])
Manner of production
Whether air is fully stopped ([b], [p], [d], [t])
Or merely restricted ([z], [s], [v], [f])
Place of articulation
Where in the mouth the air is restricted
Closing of lips ([b], [p])
Top teeth against bottom lip ([v], [f])
Tongue behind upper teeth ([d], [t], [z], [s])
9. Phonology
Many words have no clear boundaries
yet speech segmentation is effortless
Speech segmentation is the process of “slicing” the speech stream into
words and phonemes.
11. Phonology
Coarticulation the blending of phonemes
at word boundaries
refers to how the production of each phoneme
is slightly altered depending on the preceding
and following sounds.
“My name is Dan Reisberg”
“My name is Noam Chomsky”
S is slightly different
D and N are slightly different
12. Phonology
Perception of language is constructed
Use prior knowledge to fill in missing
information
The state governors met with their respective legi*latures
convening in the capital city.
Phonemic restoration effect
13. Phonology
Pollack and Picket (1964)
Spliced out words from conversations
Easily identified in context
Hard to do without context
13
14. Phonology
Continuous variation of sounds
are filtered to
produce clear phonemes
Categorical perception
Our categorization of phonemes shows
abrupt boundaries, even when there is
no corresponding abrupt change in the
stimuli themselves.
15. Phonology
Sequences
Only some are acceptable in a language.
For example, the sequence [tl] is not acceptable in
English
Adjustments for certain phoneme sequences.
For example, the [s] sound becomes a [z] in words
like “bags”
16. Words
For each word that a speaker knows,
there are several kinds of information
Phonology—the sequence of phonemes that
make up the word
Orthography—how the word is spelled (if the
person is literate)
Syntax—how to combine the word with other
words
Semantics—what the word means
17. Words
The referent is the actual object, action,
or event in the world that a word refers to
Conceptual information
A large part of “knowing a word” is knowing
the relevant concept
18. Words
Generativity
Our morphological knowledge specifies how
to create variations of each word by adding
appropriate morphemes
New words can be formed
“Hardware,” “software” lead to “spyware” and
“malware”
Words can take on new meanings
“I have been hacked by a hacker.”
19. Syntax
Generativity
Infinite number of sentences by combining finite
set of words
For practical purposes, there is an infinitely large
number of sentences that speakers can produce in
their language
21. Syntax
Acceptable sequences:
“The boy hit the ball.”
Unacceptable ones:
“The boy hit ball the.”
These rules also help us determine the
relationships among the words in the sentence
Who is doing what to whom?
“The boy chased the girl.”
22. Syntax
Jabberwocky
Sentences can be
syntactically and
morphologically
correct even when
meaningless
“’Twas brillig, and the
slithy toves did gyre
and gimble in the
wabe...”
29. Syntax
Linguistic universals
Rules that apply to all languages
Subject-verb-object
“Sally ate the apple.”
Preferred order for 98% of the languages
30. Syntax
Linguistic universals
Innate knowledge of these universals may
prepare children for learning language rapidly
Others suggest that grammar learning is
constrained by many factors
32. Sentence Parsing
Garden-path sentences
“The secretary applauded for his efforts was
soon promoted.”
“Fat people eat accumulates.”
“The horse raced past the barn fell.”
33. Sentence Parsing
Garden-path sentences
“Because he ran the second mile went
quickly.”
First interpretation
Something wrong
Reinterpretation
34. Sentence Parsing
Minimal attachment—simplest phrase structure
One phrase
Because he ran the second mile he was able to finish quickly.
Because he ran the second mile went quickly.
Two phrases
35. Sentence Parsing
The detectives examined by
the reporter revealed the truth
about the robbery
The evidence examined
by the reporter revealed
the truth about the
robbery
Background knowledge plays a part
37. Sentence Parsing
Prosody (音韻學) refers to the
patterns of pauses and pitch changes that
characterize speech production. It is used
to:
Emphasize elements of a sentence
Highlight the sentence’s intended structure
Signal the difference between a question and
an assertion
38. Sentence Parsing
Pragmatics.
“What happened to the
roast beef?”
“Well, the dog sure
does look happy.”
He must have eaten it
39. The Biological Roots of Language
Motor planning
Language
Comprehension
nonfluent aphasia
fluent aphasia
40. The Biological Roots of Language
Children learn language even with no
exposure
May have some biological mechanisms for
that
41. The Biological Roots of Language
Specific language impairment
Normal intelligence
Normal muscle movement
Difficulty learning and using language
May be evidence of specialized mechanism for
language learning
42. The Biological Roots of Language
Overregularization
errors
“Yesterday, I thinked.”
43. The Biological Roots of Language
Learning of information present in the
environment is also critical to language
acquisition
Children as young as 8 months are
sensitive to the statistical regularities in
the language that they hear, as shown in
studies employing nonsense syllable
streams
44. The Biological Roots of Language
Semantic bootstrapping refers to using
semantic knowledge to make inferences
about the syntactic structure of a language
45. Language and Thought
Linguistic relativity is the hypothesis that
people who speak different languages
think differently
Benjamin Whorf’s original argument was
that Hopi speakers and English speakers
think differently about time
46. Language and Thought
A language’s
color
categories
may affect
how its
speakers
perceive and
remember
color
47. Language and Thought
The spatial terminology of a language—for
instance whether absolute or relative
terms are used—may affect how its
speakers perceive and remember spatial
information
48. Language and Thought
One possibility for such results is that the
language you speak determines the
concepts and categories that you use, and
as a result, shapes what you can think
about
A more flexible possibility is that language
influences what we pay attention to, and
this shapes experience, which influences
how we think
50. The hierarchy of linguistic units, from largest
to smallest, is
a)phrases, words, morphemes, phonemes.
b)phonemes, phrases, words, morphemes.
c)morphemes, phonemes, phrases, words.
d)phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases.
51. Which of the following is a function
morpheme?
a) ing
b) -les
c) wish
d) noun phrase
52. Which of the following claims is TRUE?
a) Reliance on prototypes is likely to emerge
gradually as a participant’s experience with a
category grows.
b) People are likely to rely strongly on prototypes
early in their exposure to a particular category.
c) People only rely on prototypes when they have
time to make a decision.
d) With exposure to many instances of a
particular category, it becomes easier to
remember each particular instance, and this
contributes to the emergence of a prototype.
53. Which of the following is TRUE of speech
segmentation?
a) It is made harder by the fact that more than
half of the speech we hear consists of the 50
most common words in English.
b) Speech recognition programs can
understand a lot of speech from one person
and very limited speech from many people.
c) When words are in context, they are far more
difficult to identify.
d) It is made harder by the process of
coarticulation, where each phoneme
overlaps with the ones before and after it.
54. Categorical perception cannot explain
a) why it is more difficult to detect variations
within a single category than differences
between two phonemic categories.
b) why we sometimes confuse phonemes
when in a noisy environment.
c) how we identify spaces between words in
a continuous speech stream.
d) why certain phoneme combinations are
difficult for English speakers to
pronounce.
55. The fact that new words in English do not
typically start with start with sound
combinations like “tl” or “ks” demonstrates
a) the generativity of English.
b) the role of phrase-boundaries in English.
c) the phonological rules of English.
d) the biological basis of English.
56. Which sentence is the hardest to read?
a) The witness examined by the lawyer
was nervous.
b) The witness examined by the lawyer was
nervous.
c) both a and b
d) neither a nor b
Hinweis der Redaktion
Correct answer: a
Feedback: Phonemes are single sound units in a language, and morphemes are words or pieces of words. Then words and phrases follow.
Correct answer: a
Feedback: “ing” is a function morpheme indicating the progressive, such as walking.
Correct answer: a
Feedback: Prototypes require exemplars, and hence they emerge gradually.
Correct answer: d
Feedback: Coarticulation makes it harder since the beginnings and ends of words blend together.
Correct answer: a
Feedback: The differences between categories is the reason it is called categorical perception. Essentially, variations in a sound are perceived as a single category.
Correct answer: c
Feedback: Phonology has to do with the rules that govern how sounds are assembled and combined to produce a particular spoken language.
Correct answer: b
Feedback: When a sentence is not broken up with the appropriate phrase structure, it is harder to read.