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Art and science of communication.ebsco
1.
BUSINESS BOOK REVIEW
® Stay on Top of Best in Business Knowledge SM May 10, 2010 The Art and Science of Communication Tools for Effective Communication in the Workplace P.S. Perkins ©2008 by P.S. Perkins Adapted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-470-25759-4 Introduction In the workplace, communication is both an art and a lessons can help build healthy relationships not only science. Even after centuries of extensive study, many between coworkers, but also between entire cultures. aspects of human communication remain mysterious. The Communication Staircase However, researchers have proven that relationships between workers are the biggest determinant in a According to Perkins, effective communication can company’s success or failure. Today’s business leaders take place on seven different levels. The seven types have recognized the need for effective interpersonal of communication are like steps on a staircase; each communication despite the growing use of technol- step is crucial to the next, and they must be taken one ogy as a means of sending and receiving messages. at a time. The seven steps on the communication stair- case, from lowest to highest, are: P.S. Perkins’ The Art and Science of Communication informs the reader of the seven types of communica- 1. Intrapersonal Communication tion, beginning with the individual and ending on a 2. Nonverbal Communication global scale. Perkins argues that effective communica- 3. Interpersonal Communication tion relies on positive thoughts, motivating language, and a willingness to listen for the needs and desires of 4. Small Group/Organizational Communication others. In today’s high-conflict world, Perkins’ simple 5. Public Communication Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved
2.
The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins 6. Mass Communication 7. Intercultural Communication Key Concepts Each type of communication occurs, often several times, throughout the course of the day. In order to Those looking to improve their relationships in communicate effectively, one must master the steps in the workplace should consider the following order, beginning with intrapersonal communication. advice: Intrapersonal Communication • Intrapersonal communication often suffers due to poor self-image. Intrapersonal communication is the communica- tion one has with oneself, about oneself and others. • Nonverbal communication makes up 93 Intrapersonal communication occurs more frequently percent of all messages; this type of com- than any other type of communication, making it munication includes one’s appearance, one of the most important aspects of daily life. Most gestures, vocal qualities, and other nonver- critical to intrapersonal communication is how one bal codes. communicates with oneself, verbally and nonver- • The key to effective communication is bally. Self-sabotage is a common phenomenon both at active listening; all parties must consider home and in the workplace; people who fail to replace the others’ needs and make room for their negative thoughts with positive ones often have dif- unique realities. ficulty concentrating and communicating with others throughout the day. • Leaders of small groups or organizations should use language that is esteem-building Self-image is a complex issue that can create a vari- and intent-driven. ety of problems at work. Western culture, especially the media, has often created feelings of inadequacy • Anxiety is an unavoidable part of public or alienation among Americans, which can hinder communication. With sufficient mental productivity and professional success. Popular cul- preparation, excellent speakers can use ner- ture also creates a needlessly competitive atmosphere vous energy to their advantage. where workers are driven to compare themselves with • Mass communication can persuade people everyone around them. Self-image and work image through facts and logic (logos), speaker are directly related; workers are a reflection of their credibility (ethos), or emotional appeals own thoughts about themselves, whether positive or (pathos). negative. Workers must learn to define themselves, or else risk someone else doing it for them. • Intercultural communication allows com- panies to examine their place in the global Good intrapersonal communication employs a process business environment. called metacognition. Metacognition is an individual’s ability to identify and evaluate his own thoughts. g g g g It can be extremely helpful to count the number of negative thoughts that occur over the course of a day; Information about this book and other business titles: people who perform this exercise are often surprised www.wiley.com/business by the frequency with which negative thoughts occur, Related summary in the BBR Library: as well as the intensity of those thoughts. As a similar Just Listen exercise, Perkins suggests that workers write down Discover the Secret to Getting Through to all the words they use to describe themselves. From Absolutely Anyone there, workers should identify the words that are By Mark Goulston empowering or limiting, as well as those which the worker has accepted or rejected. This can provide an insight into one’s self-image, which can be improved Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 2
3.
The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins through self-monitoring and metacognition. 2. To control others’ impressions Perkins offers several other strategies to improve one’s 3. To complement words self-image and intrapersonal communication: 4. To contradict words • Understand the role of thoughts in effective com- 5. To confirm the messages of others munication. 6. To distinguish relationships between oneself and • Realize that communication begins on the inside others and determines the outside. 7. To maintain a congruent understanding of the • Use affirmations, meditation, or prayer as desired. messages in a shared environment (such as the Finally, Perkins suggests that workers replace non- workplace) affirming thoughts with affirming thoughts and statements. Instead of saying, “I cannot stand my boss,” one We learn the nonverbal codes of society much in the same way should try saying, “I would we learn language, as an integral part of our symbol system. prefer a more understanding Just as with language, we do not always acquire the most effec- boss, but I appreciate his vision.” tive nonverbal habits. Instead of focusing on negative thoughts about appearance, one Nonverbal communication is learned along with lan- should work towards an improved appearance and guage at an early age, and is made up of symbols that feel confident and proud about the extra effort. are often specific to a single culture or geographic Nonverbal Communication region. Nonverbal communication can be divided Nonverbal communication includes all of the mes- into four categories: visual, vocal, physical, and spa- sages a person sends and receives without words, tial messages. both on a conscious and unconscious level. Studies Appearance is one of the first nonverbal messages inter- show that nonverbal communication accounts for preted by others. While physical beauty is a factor nearly 93 percent of the messages others receive from in first impressions, other aspects of appearance are us, and nonverbal communication plays a significant much more important. Workers should consider the role in how an individual judges another’s trustwor- messages they are sending through their clothes and thiness or believability. accessories, even including the types of colors they Nonverbal communication is used to fulfill seven wear. Workers may choose to simply conform to stan- functions: dards, or they may decide to stand out in one way or another. No style of appearance is inherently good or 1. To substitute for words bad, only appropriate or inappropriate. Paralanguage is an important nonverbal message in the workplace. Paralanguage is not what one says, but About the Author rather how one says it. It includes vocal features such as tone, pitch, emphasis, stress, inflection, volume, P.S. Perkins is founder and CEO of the Human pacing, accent, dialect, pauses, and many other vari- Communication Institute, LLC, and a graduate ables unique to a person. Notably, paralanguage can of the communication schools of the University be adjusted if desired. Workers who are self-conscious of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and New York about accents or bad speaking habits may choose to University. She has been training, lecturing, and take instruction in diction or accent reduction. developing communications curricula for more than 20 years. Kinesics includes subtle body movements which com- plement or contradict a verbal message. This includes Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 3
4.
The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins posture, stance, eye contact, and facial movements 1. Sender or Encoder – The person that creates the and reactions. Workers who display poor or defensive message for the intended receiver. body language often deny themselves career oppor- 2. Message The information being sent from sender – tunities without even knowing it. to receiver. Chronemics is the study of time as a nonverbal system. 3. Channel – How the message travels from sender Different cultures have different perceptions of time; to receiver. in the U.S., time is segmented according to activity. Time can be used to indicate an individual’s level of 4. Environment – The context in which the com- importance (e.g. those who arrive “fashionably late”). munication occurs, including time, place, and Excessive time constraints and pressures can create circumstance. stressful work environments that result in chronic 5. External/Internal Noise – Interference that is either absenteeism. These types of problems can negatively part of the environment or inside the mind. impact bottom-line costs for many companies. 6. Listener or Decoder – The person receiving the Haptics is the nonverbal code of touching. In today’s message. workplace, touching is generally discouraged, with the exception of handshakes and pats on the back. 7. Feedback – Messages sent from listener back to Sexual harassment and diversity issues have made sender that evaluate the original message. workplace touching a complex subject. As a result, Feedback is the most overlooked factor in the inter- companies should consider the gender and cultural personal communication process. Senders often fail to makeup of their workers before asserting what actions look for the variety of messages being delivered ver- are appropriate and inappropriate in the workplace. bally and nonverbally; this is a missed opportunity to improve one’s communication Create a better understanding between yourself and the people with the listener, and in general. you interact with nonverbally every day. Use your nonverbal An important technique is using communication as a means of supplementing your verbal mes- supportive communication rather sages so that they are congruent. than defensive communication. Whereas defensive communica- Finally, olfaction, or one’s sense of smell, can play an tion is blame-centered, competitive, and uses the important role in the workplace. Americans have accusative “you,” supportive communication is prob- become accustomed to very neutral-smelling work lem-centered, cooperative, and uses the descriptive environments, which may come as a surprise to work- “I.” Supportive communication is open to differing ers from other cultures. Cultural hygiene issues can perspectives, while defensive communication is self- be difficult to approach for some managers, but one centered and closed-minded in nature. should not ignore the role of smells in nonverbal com- munication. Active listening is the most important part of any interpersonal communication. Listening is an Interpersonal Communication acquired skill that takes years of practice to master. Interpersonal Communication can be defined as the Over the course of a day, people spend more time exchange of messages between two people. In the listening than they do speaking, reading, or writing. workplace people are often more concerned with the Americans live in a high-context society where people number of connections they make, rather than the feel a consistent need to express their viewpoints. It quality of those connections. Effective interpersonal is no wonder, then, that good listeners are rare and communication is a two way-exchange that must valued members of society. involve good intrapersonal and nonverbal communi- Listening requires four human elements: mind, ears, cation, as well as active listening. eyes, and memory. However, not all listening requires There are seven parts of every interpersonal exchange: each element to be used with the same intensity. Dif- Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 4
5.
The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins ferent types of communication require different types ing. More points of view create a greater need for of listening, and it is up to the individual to decide problem-solving and conflict-management skills. The what is appropriate in each situation. key to small group discussion is to acknowledge that there is always more than one way to approach any Perkins suggests several ways to become a better lis- discussion. tener: In any company, successful small group communi- • Refrain from interrupting cation requires effective leadership. Leaders often • Keep an open mind do not examine their own communication skills to • Read ensure they are not damaging the workers they are trying to lead. Different organizations require differ- • Improve Vocabulary ent organizational styles; some workers need a more • Listen for main ideas casual “guide,” while others require more formal, even authoritarian-style leadership. The best way to • Quiet internal and external noise find out which leadership style fits best is to solicit • Be ready to listen feedback from employees. • Withhold judgment and evaluation Leaders should use intent-driven and esteem-build- ing language to drive success in a small group setting. • Develop an interest in the topic This type of language treats all members as equals, • Ask questions offers consistent praise and direct, clear feedback, and takes a proactive stance on conflict resolution. As a final note about interper- sonal communication, Perkins The need to make room for the other person’s reality is magni- asks the reader to consider what she calls the “Platinum Rule.” fied within the small-group dynamic because most individuals Whereas the well-known Golden have perceived and already solved the problem based on their Rule says, “Do unto others as you personal reality and personal needs. would have them do unto you,” the Platinum Rule elevates the concept by suggest- Conflict is inevitable in any small group setting. With ing, “Do unto others as they would have you do unto the right communication skills, however, conflict can them.” The goal of listening is to determine the needs be turned into a useful tool that can enhance results. and wants of others. This is the only way to maintain Perkins suggests a general process for group problem any type of relationship, and is the key to the next solving, which requires only that members maintain a type of communication: small-group and organiza- “team” attitude throughout the following steps: tional communication. 1. Define the problem so that everyone is on the Small Group/Organizational same page. Communication 2. Understand the issues that make up the problem. Small group communication is simply an extension of interpersonal communication; by definition it 3. Review group and organizational resources includes three or more people exchanging informa- needed to solve the problem. tion and messages. In the workplace there is a certain 4. Set an agenda to gather information and resources. balance between competition and cooperation. While 5. Apply a solution to remedy the problem. some companies value one over the other, both must be present in order to succeed. Small group com- As a general rule, workers should strive to be the munication includes the same personal issues as team member they would want to work with. A great interpersonal communication, such as insecurities, team member is dedicated to the goals of the group, intrapersonal noise, prejudices, and difficulty listen- the ethical leadership of the group, the team’s daily Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 5
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The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins productivity, and the overall harmony of the group. a private or open forum; its purpose can be to inform, Additionally, Perkins states that successful group persuade, or entertain. Today, technology makes it interaction is a mix of seven elements: possible to speak publicly in a variety of mediums, not just in front of a live audience. Fear of public speaking 1. Healthy personal outlooks is a common phenomenon in many cultures. In the 2. Effective communication skills U.S., public speaking is the single most-feared activ- 3. Shared commitment to goals ity, even ranking above death. Many workers sit in the back of boardrooms, meeting halls, or classrooms in 4. Teamwork ethics order to avoid being called upon to speak. In order to 5. Group-communication ability be an excellent presenter, one must: 6. Maintenance tasks • Be message-conscious rather than self-conscious. 7. Conflict management skills • Acquire active listening skills. Every organization has both formal and informal • Understand the principles of scholarly research communication networks that deliver messages to and the organization of ideas. employees. Formal structures include company poli- • Acquire a knowledgeable vocabulary, supple- cies, rules, tracking systems, evaluation processes, mented by a dictionary and thesaurus. complaint processes, and all other formally man- dated aspects of communication. Informal structures • Be aware of paralanguage and other nonverbal include break room discussions, water cooler gossip, codes. or simple small talk between employees. Most often, • Focus on the clarity of words. informal communication networks are the primary • Be comfortable with multicultural audiences. source of information for employees. • Enjoy the process of human It takes time and commitment to effectively add to a team, but communication. everyone can make a positive contribution. Make sure you It is important to recognize that know what you bring to the group dynamic. You have the nervousness is a part of the public power to advance the group’s mission. communication process. Profes- sional presenters use this energy Additionally, there are several “patterns” of com- to their advantage, similar to the way in which pro- munication flow that can be used in an organization. fessional athletes rely on adrenaline to give them The top-down pattern is the typical hierarchical pat- a competitive edge. The only way to control appre- tern where messages flow from the board of directors hension or stage fright is effective preparation. This down to managers down to low-level employees. The should include psychological preparation; an effective forward pattern moves communication horizontally, technique is to envision oneself having a successful along a designed, formal line of information sharing. but realistic speaking experience. The circle pattern is more informal and allows more Speakers should choose words that are appropri- employees to participate in the communication, but ate for the organizational setting. Perkins provides a it is somewhat closed. The social pattern is completely checklist to help speakers decide what type of words open and informal and includes all employees and to use in a presentation: their superiors. Companies may decide to adopt one or more of these communication styles according to • Use denotative (dictionary) meanings of words the type of environment and discussions they wish to rather than connotative (slang) meanings. foster. • Use words that are concrete rather than abstract. Public Communication • Use words that translate easily to all listeners. Public communication is the act of communicating in Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 6
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The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins • Keep words and phrasing simple. of media. This type of communication offers the opportunity to enlist the minds of others to join one’s • Use jargon sparingly, unless the audience is well- cause. informed on the topic. Mass communication is usually persuasive in nature. • Use multicultural references. There are three possible goals of persuasion: 1) to • Be gender-aware. encourage some kind of action, 2) to change a strong There are four types of public speech: impromptu, attitude or belief, or 3) to reinforce a certain belief. extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized. Additionally, there are three ways to persuade the Impromptu speech is essentially everyday discourse; public: 1) facts and reasoning, 2) speaker credibility, it is unplanned and spur-of-the-moment. Extempora- or 3) appealing to emotions. Communicators may use neous speaking is a popular presentation style; it is a a combination of these techniques to best get their prepared speech which involves research and often message across. uses note cards for organiza- tion and main points. Manuscript Through the airwaves, billboards, newspapers, magazines, tab- speech is when a presentation is loids, the Internet, and other forms of mass communication, read word-for-word. Surpris- we all consistently receive the world-view or perspective of the ingly, this is the most difficult type of speech and is usually dominant culture. reserved for professionals under time constraints, or speakers who need to relay com- Facts and reasoning, also called logos, is most often plex or technical information. Memorized speeches used in settings where evidence is required to prove are short and reserved for special occasions such as and validate results, such as academic institutions. award ceremonies, announcements, dinner speeches, Speaker credibility, or ethos, is most used on individu- and other commemorative events. als who are easily influenced by what others think One’s appearance is of utmost importance when and say. This style of persuasion includes celebrity delivering a speech or presentation. Most presenters endorsements or other recognized spokespeople. find it appropriate to dress up for speaking engage- Emotional appeal, or pathos, is used in industries ments. Many speakers find that being well-dressed where consumers make impulsive decisions based on increases confidence, making presentations easier. how they feel. Each person is more likely to be per- Additionally, presenters should ensure that their ges- suaded by one tactic than another. tures reflect a high level of comfort with the topic and Intercultural Communication with the audience. Intercultural communication is communication Understanding one’s audience is paramount to between individuals or groups from different cultural success in public communication. Speakers must backgrounds. Also called cross-cultural communi- consider an audience’s demographics, level of topic cation, it is the highest step of the communication understanding, purpose for attending and listening, staircase. The word “culture” may encompass people and receptivity to the speaker and topic. Speakers who share values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, or will benefit from researching the audience in order to symbol systems that differentiate them from other tailor the material to their wants and needs. groups. Cultures can include groups defined by reli- gion, sex, gender, age, disability, ethnicity, and others. Mass Communication Intercultural communication helps companies exam- Mass communication is the message system that con- ine how they fit into the global community and the nects members of a society or group to one another global business environment. by means of public communication. Mass communi- cation takes place through the airwaves, billboards, According to one researcher, American culture is newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other forms defined by seven values: Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 7
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The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins 1. Individualism low-context category, possibly explaining the nation’s emphasis on verbal communication. 2. Equality In order to succeed, workers must become aware 3. Materialism of their prejudices. While prejudices are personal 4. Science and Technology and private choices that every individual deserves 5. Progress and Change to make, they can be detrimental to one’s success if taken to extremes. Stereotypes are generalizations 6. Work and Leisure based on prejudices, often formed without accurate 7. Competition evidence. “Isms,” such as racism or sexism, specifi- cally refer to the actions that result from prejudices Examining these values can help a person see the and stereotypes. Perkins asserts that people who dis- differences between world cultures. The differences play extreme prejudice often show signs of extreme between individualist cultures and collectivist cul- insecurity, low self-worth, or simple ignorance. tures are especially noteworthy. The U.S. has often been described as a hyper-individualistic culture, g g g g where individual rights are highly valued and fiercely defended. However, this extreme emphasis Features of the Book on individualism often results in conflict avoidance Reading Time: 3-4 hours, 198 pages and passive-aggressive types of defense mechanisms. P.S. Perkins’ The Art and Science of Communication Another value dimension present in every culture is is a comprehensive look at the various ways humans power distance. Power distance is the degree to which send and receive messages. The book is neatly divided a culture accepts the stratification of individual power into seven sections, one for each type of communica- and placement. High power-distance cultures often tion. While most of the book focuses on issues in the use caste-type social structures, while low power- workplace, much of the advice is suitable for devel- distance cultures value equality among all people. oping personal relationships and a positive outlook While it is a point of contention, the United States on life. is regarded as a low power-distance culture, where every citizen has an opportunity to ascend the social The book places heavy emphasis on diversity in the ladder, at least in theory. workplace, and the importance of understanding the differences between cultures. Each chapter concludes Uncertainty avoidance is a value dimension which with a “Q&A” section, which uses hypothetical situ- identifies a culture’s tendency towards filtering out ations to demonstrate the communication strategies the unfamiliar. More homogenous societies are more presented by the author. A quick and enjoyable read, likely to have high uncertainty avoidance, making The Art and Science of Communication is a simple, them less accepting of diversity. By contrast, cultures inspiring guide to building the healthy relationships with low uncertainty avoidance always make room required to achieve success. for differences. The United States is considered to dis- play low uncertainty avoidance; diversity is generally accepted, especially in large communities. Contents One researcher asserts that cultures can be either high- Foreword context or low-context. High-context cultures have long Acknowledgements histories and are mostly homogenous. These cultures have huge amounts of information embedded in the Introduction environment, often resulting in a decreased need for 1. Step One: Intrapersonal Communication verbal communication. Low-context cultures, on the other hand, are fairly new and have not established a 2. Step Two: Nonverbal Communication large set of traditions. The United States falls into the Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 8
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The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins 3. Step Three: Interpersonal Communication 4. Step Four: Small-Group/Organizational Communi- cation 5. Step Five: Public Communication 6. Step Six: Mass Communication 7. Step Seven: Intercultural Communication Epilogue: New Beginnings Index Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 9
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The Art and
Science of Communication P.S. Perkins A Note to Our Readers We at BBR encourage our readers to purchase the business books we summarize. BBR Summaries are intended as a service to busy professionals, as we recommend only those books that are worth your time to read in their entirety. We apply stringent criteria in selecting only the best business books, and in that selection process, strive to help you make informed book-purchasing decisions. This book is available at bookstores and online booksellers. Business Book Review® is a service of EBSCO Publishing, Inc. For more information about BBR, to subscribe to BBR, or to provide us feedback, visit our Web site. www.businessbookreview.com EBSCO Publishing Inc. 10 Estes Street Ipswich, MA 01938 USA www.ebscohost.com Copyright of Business Book Review Library is property of EBSCO Publishing Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download or email articles for individual use. Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 10
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